A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy

by Wing-Tsit Chan

  32. The Heavenly endowed nature in man is comparable to the nature of water in ice. It is the same whether the ice freezes or melts. Water’s reflection of light may be much or little, dark or bright, but in receiving the light, it is the same in all cases.

  33. The innate ability endowed by Heaven is fundamentally my own innate ability. Only I may have lost some of it.

  Comment. Wang Fu-chih has observed that whereas Mencius stressed both innate ability and innate knowledge,56 Chang stressed only innate ability and Wang Yang-ming later stressed only innate knowledge.57

  34. Those who understand the higher things return to the Principle of Nature (T’ien-li, Principle of Heaven) while those who understand lower things58 follow human desires.

  Comment. Chang was the first Confucianist to have made a clear-cut distinction between the Principle of Nature and human desires. The sharp distinction was maintained through Sung (960-1279) and Ming (1368-1644) Neo-Confucianism until Ch’ing (1644-1912) Confucianists vigorously revolted against it.

  35. It is the function of nature to combine. In so doing it unites the two.59 It is the function of destiny to receive. In receiving it follows specific principles. If the fundamental principle of combining (the highest good)60 is not applied to the utmost, the lot received cannot be perfectly understood. When in the full development of my nature and the investigation of things to the utmost there are things that cannot be changed, they would be in accord with principles applied to me. Destiny is that whose operation even Heaven cannot stop, and the nature of man is necessarily affected by the external world. Therefore the sage does not allow what he should worry about (the state of affairs that affects his nature) to be confused with what he should not worry about (the natural operation of destiny). There is the principle of assisting [Heaven] in its task of production and bringing things to perfection. That depends on me.

  36. Stillness and purity characterize the original state of material force. Attack and seizure characterize it when it becomes desire [upon contact with things]. The relation between the mouth and the stomach on the one hand and food on the other, and between the nose and tongue on the one hand and smell and taste on the other are all cases of [physical] nature’s attacking and seizing. He who understands virtue will have a sufficient amount, that is all. He will not allow sensual desires to be a burden to his mind, the small to injure the great, or the secondary to destroy the fundamental.

  37. If one’s mind can fully develop one’s nature, it shows that “it is man that can make the Way great.” If one’s nature does not know how to discipline one’s mind, it shows that “it is not the Way that can make man great.”61

  38. One who can fully develop his nature can also develop the nature of other people and things. He who can fulfill his destiny can also fulfill the destiny of other people and things,62 for the nature of all men and things follows the Way and the destiny of all men and things is decreed by Heaven. I form the substance of all things63 without overlooking any, and all things form my substance, and I know that they do not overlook anything. Only when one fulfills his destiny can he bring himself and things into completion without violating their principle.

  39. To consider what is inborn as one’s nature is to fail to penetrate to a knowledge of the course of day and night.64 Furthermore, that doctrine considers man and things to be equal. Therefore the mistake of Kao Tzu65 must not be left unrefuted.

  40. Nature in man is always good. It depends on whether man can skillfully return to it or not. To exceed the transforming operation of Heaven and Earth (such as food and sex) means not to return skillfully. Destiny in man is always correct. It depends on whether or not one obeys it. If one takes to dangerous courses and hopes for good luck, he is not obeying his destiny.66

  41. With the existence of physical form, there exists physical nature. If one skillfully returns to the original nature endowed by Heaven and Earth, then it will be preserved. Therefore in physical nature there is that which the superior man denies to be his original nature.67

  Comment. Chu Hsi said, “The doctrine of physical nature originated with Chang and Ch’eng (Ch’eng I). It made a tremendous contribution to the Confucian School and is a great help to us students. None before them had enunciated such a doctrine. Hence with the establishment of the doctrine of Chang and Ch’eng, the theories [of human nature] of all previous philosophers collapse.”68 Chu Hsi is correct because for the first time Confucianism has found an at least tentatively satisfactory answer to the question of evil. Mencius gave no answer because he merely put the responsibility on man himself. Han and T’ang (618-907) Confucianists ascribed evil to feelings, but they never explained why feelings should be evil. There was no convincing answer until Chang, and his answer is physical nature.

  In his theory, Reality is one but its manifestations are many. In the state of differentiatedness, there is bound to be opposition, discrimination, conflict, and imbalance. These characteristics are attendant in one’s endowment of physical nature by the very fact of its differentiatedness. Such imbalance leads to excess in the natural transformation process, that is, deviation from the Mean, and that is evil. It is not that physical nature as such is evil, for that would be following the Buddhist doctrine that the world is an illusion. Rather, in the physical nature is the occasion for evil, and how to use this occasion depends on man.69

  42. Man’s strength, weakness, slowness, quickness, and talent or lack of talent are due to the one-sidedness of the material force. Heaven (Nature) is originally harmonious and not one-sided. If one cultivates this material force and returns to his original nature without being onesided, one can then fully develop his nature and [be in harmony with] Heaven. Before man’s nature is formed, good and evil are mixed. Therefore to be untiring in continuing the good which issues [from the Way]70 is good. If all evil is removed, good will also disappear [for good and evil are relative and are necessary to reveal each other]. Therefore avoid just saying “good” but say, “That which realizes it (the Way) is the individual nature.”71

  43. When moral character does not overcome the material force, our nature and destiny proceed from the material force. But when moral character overcomes the material force, then our nature and destiny proceed from moral character. If one investigates principle to the utmost and fully develops his nature, then his nature will bp in accord with the character of Heaven and his destiny will be in accord with the Principle of Heaven (Nature). Only life, death, and longevity and brevity of life are due to the material force and cannot be changed.

  Therefore, in discussing life and death, [Confucius said] that they “are the decree of Heaven,” referring to material force, and in discussing wealth and honor he said that they “depend on Heaven”72 referring to principle. This is why a man of great virtue (the sage ruler) always receives the Mandate of Heaven (T’ien-ming). He is in accord with the easy and simple Principle of Heaven and Earth, and occupies the central position in the universe. What is meant by the Principle of Heaven is the principle which can make the hearts of all people happy and give free expression to the will of the whole world. As it can make the world happy and free in their expression, the world will all turn to him. If some do not do so, it would be because of differences in circumstances and opportunities, as in the cases of Confucius [who never had a chance to be a ruler] and those rulers who succeeded [sage rulers in spite of their own wickedness].

  [Confucius said,] “Shun and Yü held possession of the empire as if it were nothing to them.”73 This was because they achieved the Principle of Heaven through moral effort and not because they were entitled to rule because of their endowment in physical nature or because they obtained it through their ambition. Shun and Yü were mentioned by Confucius because the rest of the rulers did not come to the throne through natural tendencies but because they sought it.

  44. Spirit moves smoothly, whereas a material object is obstructed. Therefore because of their physical form wind and thunder cannot be as quick as the mind. However
, the mind is limited by what one sees and hears and is therefore not as great as the nature.

  45. Because they have departed from their nature too far, the most intelligent and the most stupid cannot change.74

  46. If one removes even the slightest evil, goodness will become his nature. If he fails to detect evil completely, although his nature is good, it will become impure.

  47. “Without awareness or knowledge, follow the principle of the Lord.”75 If one does so consciously or knowingly, one will lose the [Principle of] Heaven. What belongs to the nature of the superior man forms the same current with Heaven and Earth. He merely acts differently [from the ordinary man].

  48. By “being on the left and on the right of the Lord”76 is meant to understand the Principle of Heaven whether one is on the left or on the right. The Principle of Heaven operates according to the circumstances of time and according to moral principle. When a superior man teaches others, he presents the Principle of Heaven and explains it to them. In his own conduct, he follows the Principle of Heaven according to the circumstances of the time.

  49. Peace and joy are the beginning of the Way. Because it is peaceful, it can be great, and because it is joyous, it can be lasting. The nature of Heaven and Earth is nothing other than being great and lasting.

  50. Everything is due to Heaven. If yang that is clear dominates, one’s moral nature will function. If yin that is turbid dominates, one’s material desires will have their way. To “remove evil and complete the good”77 surely depends on learning.

  51. Can a person who is not sincere [within] and grave [without] be said to be able to develop his nature fully and investigate principle to the utmost? The character of one’s nature is never insincere or disrespectful. Therefore, I know that he who is not free from insincerity or disrespect does not know his nature.

  52. If effort is needed to be sincere or grave, that is not our nature. To be sincere or grave without effort may be said of the superior man who “is truthful without any words” and “does not resort to anger and the people are awed.”78

  53. If one is upright in his life and follows principle, then all his good and evil fortunes are correct. If one is not upright in his life, either he enjoys blessings that are evil or he shirks from danger.

  54. “Contraction and expansion act on each other and thus advantages are produced.”79 This is so because they are influenced by sincerity. “Truthfulness and insincerity act on each other and advantages and disadvantages are produced.”80 This is so because insincerity is mixed with sincerity. A person with perfect sincerity obeys principle and finds advantages, whereas a man of insincerity disobeys principle and meets harm. If one obeys the principle of nature and destiny, then all the good and evil fortunes are correct. If one violates principle, then evil fortune is of his own choice and good fortune is luck obtained by taking to a dangerous course.

  55. “Everything is destiny. A man should accept obediently what is correct [in his destiny].”81 If one obeys the principles of his nature and destiny, he will obtain what is correct in them. If one destroys principle and indulges in desires to the limit, he will be inviting evil fortune. (sppy, 2:17a-21a)

  C.--ADDITIONAL SELECTIONS FROM THE WORKS OF CHANG TSAI

  56. The life of animals is based on heaven [for their heads tend upward]. Their transition from integration to disintegration depends on their inhalation and exhalation of breath. The life of plants is based on earth [for their roots grow downward]. Their transition from integration to disintegration depends on the rise and fall of yin and yang. When a thing first comes into existence, material force comes gradually into it to enrich its vitality. As it reaches its maturity, material force gradually reverts to where it came from, wanders off and disperses. Its coming means positive spiritual force (shen), because it is expanding (shen). Its reversion means negative spiritual force (kuei), because it is returning (kuei). (Cheng-meng, ch. 5, Chang Tzu ch’üan-shu, sppy, 2:16a)

  57. In the process of production, some things come first and some afterward. This is Heaven’s sequence. They coexist and contrast one another in their different sizes and levels. This is Heaven’s orderliness. In the production of things, there is sequence, and in their existence in physical forms, there is orderliness. Only when sequence is understood will moral principles be correct, and only when orderliness is understood will the principle of propriety operate, (ch. 5, sppy, 2:16b)

  58. According to principle nothing exists alone. Unless there are similarity and difference, contraction and expansion, and beginning and end among things to make it stand out, it is not really a thing although it seems to be. To become complete (to attain individuality), a thing must have a beginning and an end. But completion cannot be achieved unless there is mutual influence between similarity and difference (change) and between being and non-being (becoming). If completion is not achieved, it is not really a thing although it seems to be. Therefore it is said, “Contraction and expansion act on each other and thus advantages are produced.”82 (ibid.)

  59. By enlarging one’s mind, one can enter into all the things in the world [to examine and understand their principle].83 As long as anything is not yet entered into, there is still something outside the mind. The mind of ordinary people is limited to the narrowness of what is seen and what is heard. The sage, however, fully develops his nature and does not allow what is seen or heard to fetter his mind. He regards everything in the world to be his own self. This is why Mencius said that if one exerts his mind to the utmost, he can know nature and Heaven.84 Heaven is so vast that there is nothing outside of it. Therefore the mind that leaves something outside is not capable of uniting itself with the mind of Heaven. Knowledge coming from seeing and hearing is knowledge obtained through contact with things. It is not knowledge obtained through one’s moral nature. Knowledge obtained through one’s moral nature does not originate from seeing or hearing, (ch. 7, sppy, 2:21a)

  60. The Buddhists do not understand destiny decreed by Heaven and think that the production and annihilation of the universe are due to the elements of existence (dharmas) created by the mind. They regard the small (human consciousness) as the cause of the great (reality), and the secondary as the cause of the fundamental. Whatever they cannot understand thoroughly, they regard as illusion or error. They are indeed [summer insects] which doubt the existence of ice. (ibid., 2:22b)

  61. Confucianists investigate principle and therefore can follow their nature. This constitutes the Way. Buddhists, on the other hand, do not know how to investigate principle and arbitrarily consider [Emptiness] as the true nature. Consequently their theory cannot prevail, (ch. 8, sppy, 2:26a)

  62. In one’s words there should be something to teach others. In one’s activities there should be something to serve as model for others. In the morning something should be done. In the evening something should be realized. At every moment something should be nourished. And in every instant something should be preserved, (ch. 12, sppy, 3:9a)

  63. It is according to one’s nature that being and non-being, and reality and unreality pervade a thing. If they are not united as one, nature cannot be developed fully. Food and sex are both nature. How can they be obliterated? Thus being and non-being are both nature. How can there be no opposition? The Taoists and Buddhists have for long maintained that there is none. Do they really understand truth? (ch. 17, sppy, 3:21b)

  64. In trying to understand spirits, Buddhists say that beings with consciousness die and are born in cycles. They are therefore tired of suffering and seek to escape from it. Can they be said to understand spiritual beings? They consider human life as a delusion. Can they be said to understand man? Heaven and man form a unity, but they accept one (the ultimate nature of Heaven) and reject the other (human affairs). Can they be said to understand Heaven? What Confucius and Mencius called Heaven, they call the Path. “The wandering away of the spirit (material force) [as it disintegrates] becomes change,”85 but the deluded Buddhists call this transmigration. They just don’t thin
k, (ibid., 3:22a)

  Comment. Neo-Confucianists attacked Buddhism on all fronts. Chang did so mostly on philosophical grounds. Other Neo-Confucianists, like Ch’eng Hao, Ch’eng I, and Wang Yang-ming (1472-1529), stressed the social and ethical aspects by emphasizing Buddhist escape from social responsibility and selfish desire for personal salvation.

  65. Things should be investigated gradually. By seeing more and more things and investigating their principles more and more, one can fully develop the nature of things. (“Recorded Sayings,” ibid., 12: 1b)

  66. The great benefit of learning is to enable one to transform his physical nature himself. Otherwise he will have the defect of studying in order to impress others, in the end will attain no enlightenment, and cannot see the all-embracing depth of the sage, (ibid., 12:3a.)

  Comment. The phrase, “transform the physical nature,” has been hailed by Neo-Confucianists as an outstanding contribution and has remained a golden teaching in the Confucian School. The doctrine holds man himself responsible, and puts faith in education. Philosophically, the significant point is that evil can be transmuted to be good. As he said before, when virtue overcomes material force, one’s nature and destiny are controlled and determined by virtue. Only life and death are material forces that cannot be changed. As to method, the best is to enlarge the mind.86

  67. Everything has principle. If one does not know how to investigate principle to the utmost, he would be dreaming all his life. Buddhists do not investigate principle to the utmost. They consider everything to be the result of subjective illusion. Chuang Tzu did understand principle, but when he went to its utmost, he also considered things to be a dream. Therefore in referring to Confucius and Yen Yüan,87 he said that they both were dreaming.88 (ibid.)

  68. The mind commands man’s nature and feelings. (“Additional Sayings on the Nature and Principle,” ibid., 14:2a)