A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy

by Wing-Tsit Chan

  64. The mind is the principle of production. As there is the mind, a body must be provided for it so it can produce. The feeling of commiseration is the principle of production in man. (21B:2a)

  Comment. A great deal of doubt has been raised about this. As Chu Hsi explains it, “The mind is the principle of production, and the sense of commiseration is man’s principle of production. That means that man creates because he has received the mind of Heaven to do so.”120 But as Chiang Yung (1681-1762) has observed, “Chu Hsi also said that the mind belongs to Heaven and Earth and not to a person. I am afraid this is not Chu Hsi’s final conclusion.”121

  65. Further question: The Book of Changes122 says [that a sage knows] the features of positive and negative spiritual forces (kuei-shen), 123 Are there really such features? Answer: Yes. Further question: If there are features there must be spiritual beings. [Is that right?] Answer: Positive and negative spiritual forces referred to in the Book of Changes are the same as production and transformation. Further question: How is it that famous mountains and great rivers can give rise to clouds and cause rain to fall? Answer: They are the results of material force rising as vapor. Question: Since there are the sacrifices [to these mountains and rivers], must there not be their spirits? Answer: Material force itself is spirit. Nowadays people are ignorant of this principle. They go to temples and pray for rain as soon as there is a drought. (22A:8a-b)

  66. The nature is the same as principle. This is what we call rational nature. Traced to their source, none of the principles in the world is not good. Before they are aroused, have pleasure, anger, sorrow, and joy ever been found to be not good? As they are aroused and attain due measure and degree, they are good, no matter in what connection. Whenever we speak of good and evil, good always precedes evil. Whenever we speak of good and evil fortune, good fortune always precedes evil fortune. And whenever we speak of right and wrong, right always precedes wrong. (22A:11a)

  67. The knowledge obtained through hearing and seeing is not the knowledge obtained through moral nature. When a thing (the body) comes into contact with things, the knowledge so obtained is not from within. This is what is meant by extensive learning and much ability today. The knowledge obtained from moral nature does not depend on seeing and hearing. (25:2a)

  68. A student must first of all learn to doubt. (Wai-shu, 11:2b)

  69. Substance and function come from the same source, and there is no gap between the manifest and the hidden.124 (Preface to I chuan)

  70. Spoken of as one, Heaven is the Way (Tao). This is the meaning when it is said that “Heaven will not be in opposition.”125 Spoken of in its different aspects, it is called heaven with respect to its physical body, the Lord (Ti) with respect to its being master, negative and positive spiritual forces with respect to its operation, spirit (shen) with respect to its wonderful functioning, and ch’ien with respect to its nature and feelings. Ch’ien is the beginning of all things. Therefore it is Heaven, yang, father, and ruler. Origination, flourish, advantage, and firmness are called the Four Moral Qualities. Origination is the beginning of all things, flourish the growth of all things, advantage the success of all things, and firmness the completion of all things. (I chuan, 1:1a)

  71. Origination in the Four Moral Qualities is comparable to humanity in the Five Constant Virtues (humanity, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and faithfulness). Separately speaking, it is one of the several, but collectively speaking, it embraces all the four, (ibid., 1:2b)

  72. Destiny is what is endowed by Heaven and the nature is what things have received from Heaven, (ibid., 1:2b)

  73. In identifying himself with Heaven and Earth, sun and moon, the four seasons, and positive and negative spiritual forces, the great man identifies himself with the Way. Heaven and Earth are the Way. Positive and negative spiritual forces are traces of creation, (ibid., 1:7b-8a)

  74. Humanity is universal impartiality; it is the foundation of goodness. (ibid., 2:34a)

  75. Principle in the world is one. Although there are many roads in the world, the destination is the same, and although there are a hundred deliberations, the result is one.126 Although things involve many manifestations and events go through infinite variations, when they are united by the one, there cannot be any contradiction, (ibid., 3:3b)

  76. According to the principle of the world, nothing can last forever without activity. With activity, a thing will begin again when it ends, and can therefore last forever without limit. Among things in the universe, even as solid and dense as huge mountains, nothing can remain unchanged. Thus being long lasting does not mean being in a fixed and definite state. Being fixed and definite, a thing cannot last long. The way to be constant is to change according to circumstances. This is a common principle. . . . Unless one knows the Way, how can he understand the constant and lasting way of the universe and the constant and lasting principle of the world? (ibid., 3:6a)

  77. That which is inherent in things is principle. That by which things are managed is moral principles, (ibid., 4:20b)

  78. The beginning and ending of all things are nothing but integration and disintegration. Positive and negative spiritual forces are the function of creation. If viewed from the causes of what is hidden and what is manifest, from the principle of life and death, and from the features of positive and negative spiritual forces, the Way of Heaven and Earth can be understood. . . . Activity and tranquillity have no beginning and yin and yang have no starting point. Unless one knows the Way, how can he understand this? Activity and tranquillity cause each other and thus changes and transformation are produced. What follows this Way is good. . . . Heaven and Earth do not share the anxiety of the sage. For Heaven and Earth do not act as master whereas the sage has a mind of his own. Heaven and Earth create and transform without having any mind of their own. The sage has a mind of his own but does not take an [unnatural] action. How perfect is the eminent virtue and great achievement of Heaven and Earth and the sage!127 (Ching-shuo or Explanations of the Classics, 1:1b-2a)

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  THE UNITY OF MIND AND PRINCIPLE IN LU HSIANG-SHAN

  We have seen that in the Ch’eng brothers there was a strong emphasis on the single and the fundamental. For Lu Hsiang-shan (Lu-Chiu-yüan, 1139-1193),1 these formed the very bases of his philosophy and methodology as well as his personality.

  As a man, he led a simple life, devoting much of it to lecturing on moral principles. Thousands of scholars gathered to listen to his simple and straight lectures, which always went directly into the fundamentals. In his lecture on righteousness versus profit, in 1183, he moved his audience to tears. In methodology, he rejected details and superfluous writing and advocated the concentration on the most essential. In both moral cultivation and intellectual pursuit, he simply relied on the mind.

  The mind is conceived by him to be morally self-sufficient, and endowed with innate knowledge of the good and innate ability to do good. It is one and indissoluble. It fills the whole universe. As such it is identical with principle (li). The investigation of things means nothing more than to investigate this mind.

  This doctrine was simply put forth with no literary embellishment and little logical deliberations, but it started a strong current that was to oppose the rationalism of the Ch’eng-Chu School for several hundred years. It can readily be seen that he is opposed to Chu Hsi (1130-1200) at every point. To Chu Hsi, principle and the element that gives being its substance and physical form, namely material force (ch’i), are sharply different. To Lu, on the contrary, there is nothing outside the Way (Tao) and there is no Way outside things. Chu Hsi discussed human nature extensively. Lu hardly mentioned the subject. To Chu Hsi, mind is the function of human nature, and human nature is identical with principle. To Lu, however, mind is principle. Although both philosophers insisted that mind is one, Chu Hsi made the distinction between the human mind, which is in a precarious position because it is liable to mistakes, and the moral mind, which always follows the Way. Lu refused to
accept such a distinction. To him, the mind is one and the same, and it is the same whether in each individual or in the entire universe. Chu Hsi considered the Great Ultimate above physical forms and yin and yang (passive and active cosmic forces) within physical forms. Lu rejected such a dichotomy, declaring that yin and yang are already above the realm of corporeality. While both philosophers agreed that human nature is originally good, Chu Hsi contrasted the Principle of Nature (T’ien-li, Principle of Heaven) with human desires. To Lu, such a contrast is untenable. For Chu Hsi, the investigation of things means investigating the principle in things. For Lu, investigation means investigating the mind, for to him all principles are inherent and complete in the mind.

  These philosophical differences are as sharp as they are incompatible. Their opposition in the way of life, however, is even more direct. In Lu’s opinion, the way of Chu Hsi was one of divided mind, aimless drifting, and devotion to isolated details that meant little to life. Instead, he advocated the simple, easy, and direct method of recovering one’s original good nature, by having a firm purpose, by establishing the nobler part of one’s nature, and by coming to grips with fundamentals. In short, Chu’s way is that of “following the path of inquiry and study,” while Lu’s way is that of “honoring the moral nature.”2 Thus they intensified the different emphasis of Ch’eng I (Ch’eng I-ch’uan, 1033-1107) and his brother Ch’eng Hao (Ch’eng Ming-tao, 1032-1085) and formed the two wings of Neo-Confucianism, the rationalistic or the School of Principle and the idealistic or the School of Mind, that were to flourish for several centuries. While in the long run the influence of Lu was not anywhere so great as that of Chu, the idealism of Lu culminated in the philosophy of Wang Yang-ming (Wang Shou-jen, 1472-1529) that overshadowed the rationalistic movement in the Ming period (1368-1644), as we shall see.

  Following the list of topics and references are selections from the Hsiang-shan Ch’üan-chi (Complete Works of Lu Hsiang-shan).3

  Book learning: 20, 34

  Buddhism: 4

  Chu Hsi: 5, 23, 29, 31

  Investigation of things: 7, 34

  Mind: 2, 3, 10, 13, 15, 30, 35, 40; Original mind: 2, 3, 10

  Moral self-sufficiency: 2, 3, 10, 28, 37, 39

  Nature, feeling, capacity, and mind: 35

  Principle, the Way: 1-3, 8-9, 11-13, 15, 17-19, 30, 33, 36, 42

  Principle vs. desire: 21, 40, 41

  Self, others, and the universe: 14, 26, 27, 35

  Self-cultivation: 1, 16, 22, 25, 37

  Self-establishment: 8, 24, 28, 32, 38

  THE COMPLETE WORKS OF LU HSIANG-SHAN

  1. Principle is endowed in me by Heaven, not drilled into me from outside. If one understands that principle is the same as master and really makes it his master, one cannot be influenced by external things or fooled by perverse doctrines. (1:3a)

  2. The mind is one and principle is one. Perfect truth is reduced to a unity; the essential principle is never a duality. The mind and principle can never be separated into two. That is why Confucius said, “There is one thread that runs through my doctrines,”4 and Mencius said, “The Way is one and only one.”5 (Quoting Confucius), Mencius also said, “There are but two ways to be pursued, that of humanity (jen) and that of inhumanity.”6 To do in a certain way is humanity. Not to do in a certain way is the opposite of humanity. Humanity is the same as the mind and principle. “Seek and you find it”7 means to find this principle. “Those who are the first to know” know this principle, and “those who are the first to understand”8 understand this principle. It is this principle that constitutes the love for parents, reverence for elders, and the sense of alarm and commiseration when one sees a child about to fall into a well. It is this principle that makes people ashamed of shameful things and hate what should be hated. It is this principle that enables people to know what is right to be right and what is wrong to be wrong. It is this principle that makes people deferential when deference is due and humble when humility is called for. Seriousness (ching)9 is this principle. Righteousness is also this principle. What is internal is this principle. What is external is also this principle. Therefore it is said, “Straight, square, and great, (the superior man) works his operation, without repeated effort, (and is) in every respect advantageous.”10 Mencius said, “The ability possessed by men without their having acquired it by learning is innate ability, and the knowledge possessed by them without deliberation is innate knowledge.”11 These are endowed in us by Heaven. “We originally have them with us,” and “they are not drilled into us from outside.”12 Therefore Mencius said, “All things are already complete in oneself. There is no greater joy than to examine oneself and be sincere (or absolutely real).”13 (1:3b-4a)

  3. The Way fills the universe. It does not hide or escape from anything. With reference to Heaven, it is called yin and yang (passive and active cosmic forces). With reference to Earth, it is called strength and weakness. With reference to man, it is called humanity and righteousness. Thus humanity and righteousness are the original mind of man. Mencius said, “Is there not a heart of humanity and righteousness originally existing in man?”14 He also said, “We originally have them with us (the senses of humanity and righteousness, propriety, and wisdom)” and “they are not drilled into us from outside.”15 The stupid and the unworthy do not come up to them and thus they are obscured with selfish desires and lose their original mind. The worthy and the wise go beyond them and thus are obscured by subjective viewpoints and lose their original mind.16 (1:6b)

  4. I use these two words, righteousness and profit, to distinguish between Confucianism and Buddhism. I also use the terms “public-spiritedness” and “selfishness”, but actually they mean righteousness and profit. The Confucianists consider man, living in the world, as more intelligent than the myriad things and more noble than the myriad things, and that man and Heaven and Earth coexist as three ultimates. For Heaven there is the Way of Heaven, for Earth there is the Way of Earth, and for man there is the way of man. Unless man fully practices the Way of man, he will not be qualified to coexist with Heaven and Earth. Man has five senses and each sense has its own function. From this [common experience of mankind] we have the right and wrong and success and failure, and we have education and learning. This is the basis on which Confucian doctrines have been founded. Therefore we call them righteous and public-spirited. Buddhists, on the other hand, consider man, living in the world, as consisting of a chain of birth and death, a wheel of transmigration, and afflictions resulting from passions, and regard them as most painful, and seek to escape from them. Those who realize the truth and achieve awakening realize that there is originally no chain of birth and death, no transmigration, and no afflictions resulting from passions. Therefore they say, “The matter of the chain of birth and death is important.” What you17 called resolution to become a bodhisattva (a Buddhist saint) is merely for the sake of this important matter. This is the basis on which Buddhist doctrines are founded. Therefore we call them profit-seeking and selfish. It is precisely because of righteousness and public-spiritedness that we Confucianists are engaged in putting the world in order, and because of their desire for profit and selfishness that the Buddhists withdraw from the world. Even when Confucianists reach to the realms of (Heaven) which has neither sound nor smell,18 (spirit) which is not spatially restricted, and (Change) which has no physical form,19 they always emphasize putting the world in order. Although the Buddhists would save all people in the future, they always emphasize withdrawing from the world. Now, those who follow Buddhism are all human beings. As they are human beings, how can they cast aside our Confucian humanity and righteousness? Although they renounce the family, they still want to repay the Four Kindnesses (of parents, teachers, the king, and benefactors).20 Thus in their daily life they of course sometimes preserve this principle which is rooted in the human mind and cannot be obliterated. However, their doctrines did not arise in order to preserve it. Therefore whether it is preserved or not is of no sufficient importance t
o those who are advanced in the Buddhist way of life. We Confucianists, on the other hand, say that “That whereby man differs from the lower animals is but small. The ordinary people cast it away, while the superior man preserves it.”21 The Buddhists pity people because they have not escaped the wheel of transmigration but continue in the chain of birth and death, regarding them as floating and sinking in the sea of life and death. Do sages and worthies in Confucianism merely float and sink in this sea of life and death of theirs. Our sages and worthies are free from that which the Buddhists pity. Their doctrines did not arise for the sake of escaping from it and therefore their teachings do not emphasize it. Therefore our Confucian sages and worthies are free from that which the Buddhists pity, but Buddhist sages and worthies are not free from those things for which we Confucianists show concern. If we judge the Buddhist sages and worthies by the law of the Spring and Autumn Annals [which demands putting the world in order], even a boy knows that they cannot get away from its condemnation. From the point of view of the origin of their respective doctrines, we see that the distinction between the Confucianists and the Buddhists as one for public-spiritedness and righteousness and the other for selfishness and profit is perfectly clear and that they are absolutely incompatible. (2:-1b-2a)

  Comment. Many writers, past and present, have described Lu Hsiang-shan as Buddhistic. Chu Hsi said that Lu taught the doctrines of Zen Buddhism in Confucian disguise like a salt smuggler who covers his load with salted fish.22 Ch’en Chien (Ch’en Ch’ing-lan, 1497-1567), strong defender of the Chu Hsi School and severe critic of Lu Hsiang-shan and Wang Yang-ming, ruthlessly attacked both as advocates of Zen throughout his book, Hsüeh-pu t’ung-pien (General Critique of Obscurations of Learning). To the extent that Lu over-emphasized the mind, the criticisms are valid. But he is far more different from Zen than he is similar to it. His doctrine of the mind, for example, has none of the profound mystery of Zen. He stressed thinking, doubt, and judgment, and that is a far cry from Zen. In the above discussion, he pointed out a key difference between him and Buddhists. Whatever similarities exist between his philosophy and Buddhism are superficial. Incidentally, many writers, including such outstanding scholars as Tokiwa Daijō, have exaggerated the similarities between Neo-Confucianism and Buddhism.23