A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy

by Wing-Tsit Chan

  Question: I imagine it is like the tide rushing upon and making waves in the sand.

  Answer: Yes. The most turbid water formed the earth and the purest fire became wind, thunder, lightning, the stars, and the like. (49:19b-20a)

  125. Question: From the beginning of the universe to this day, it has not yet been ten thousand years. I do not know how things looked before then.

  Answer: The past is to be understood in the same way.

  Further question: Can the universe be destroyed?

  Answer: It is indestructible. But in time man will lose all moral principles and everything will be thrown together in a chaos. Man and things will all die out, and then there will be a new beginning.

  Further question: How was the first man created?

  Answer: Through the transformation of material force. When the essence of yin and yang and the Five Agents are united, man’s physical form is established. This is what the Buddhists call production by transformation. There are many such productions today, such as lice. (49:-20a)

  Comment. This is a curious compromise between the traditional Confucian human cycles within the world and the Buddhist doc trine of cycle of the world itself.

  126. Question: With reference to the mind of Heaven and Earth and the Principle of Heaven and Earth. Principle is moral principle. Is mind the will of a master?

  Answer: The mind is the will of a master, it is true, but what is called master is precisely principle itself. It is not true that outside of the mind there is principle, or that outside of principle there is a mind. (49:23a)

  127. Heaven and Earth have no other business except to have the mind to produce things. The material force of one origin (the Great Ultimate including principle and material force) revolves and circulates without a moment of rest, doing nothing except creating the myriad things.

  Question: Master Ch’eng I said, “Heaven and Earth create and transform without having any mind of their own. The sage has a mind of his own but does not take any [unnatural] action.”189

  Answer: That shows where Heaven and Earth have no mind of their own. It is like this: The four seasons run their course and the various things flourish. When do Heaven and Earth entertain any mind of their own? As to the sage, he only follows principle. What action does he need to take? This is the reason why Ming-tao (Ch’eng Hao) said, “The constant principle of Heaven and Earth is that their mind is in all things and yet they have no mind of their own. The constant principle of the sage is that his feelings are in accord with all creation, and yet he has no feelings of his own.”190 This is extremely well said.

  Question: Does having their mind in all things not mean to pervade all things with their mind without any selfishness?

  Answer: Heaven and Earth reach all things with this mind. When man receives it, it then becomes the human mind. When things receive it, it becomes the mind of things (in general). And when grass, trees, birds, animals receive it, it becomes the mind of grass, trees, birds, and animals (in particular). All of these are simply the one mind of Heaven and Earth. Thus we must understand in what sense Heaven and Earth have mind and in what sense they have no mind. We cannot be inflexible. (49:23b-24a)

  128. When the myriad things are bom and grow, that is the time when Heaven and Earth have no mind. When dried and withered things desire life, that is the time when Heaven and Earth have mind. (49:24a)

  129. The Lord (Ti) is principle acting as master. (49:25a)

  13. Spiritual Beings and Spiritual Forces (Kuei-Shen)

  130. Someone asked whether there are spiritual beings (kuei-shen)?191

  Answer: How can this matter be quickly explained? Even if it could, would you believe it? You must look into all principles of things and gradually understand, and then this puzzling problem will be solved by itself. When Fan Ch’ih asked about wisdom, Confucius said, “Devote oneself earnestly to the duties due to men, and respect spiritual beings but keep them at a distance. This may be called wisdom.”192 Let us attend to those things that should be attended to. Those that cannot be attended to, let us set aside. By the time we have attended thoroughly to ordinary daily matters, the principles governing spiritual beings will naturally be understood. This is the way to wisdom. [When Confucius said], “If we are not yet able to serve man, how can we serve spiritual beings?”193 he expresses the same idea. (51:2a)

  131. Is expansion positive spiritual force (shen) and contraction negative spiritual force (kuei)?

  The Teacher drew a circle on the desk with his hand and pointed to its center and said: Principle is like a circle. Within it there is differentiation like this. All cases of material force which is coming forth belong to yang and are positive spiritual force. All cases of material force which is returning to its origin belong to yin and are the negative spiritual force. In the day, forenoon is the positive spiritual force, afternoon is the negative spiritual force. In the month, from the third day onward is the positive spiritual force; after the sixteenth day, it is the negative spiritual force.

  T’ung Po-yü194 asked: Is it correct when speaking of the sun and moon as opposites, to say that the sun is the positive spiritual force and the moon is the negative spiritual force?

  Answer: Yes, it is. Plants growing are the positive spiritual force, plants declining are the negative spiritual force. A person from childhood to maturity is the positive spiritual force, while a man in his declining years and old age is the negative spiritual force. In breathing, breath going out is the positive spiritual force, breath coming in is the negative spiritual force. (51:6b)

  132. The positive and negative spiritual forces are so called with respect to function. Spirit is so-called with respect to the wonderful functioning. In the cases of positive and negative spiritual forces, like yin and yang, contraction and expansion, going and coming, and diminution and augmentation, there are rough traces that can be seen. In the case of spirit which is so-called because of the mysterious functioning, it happens all of a sudden and is unfathomable. It suddenly comes, suddenly goes; it is suddenly here, suddenly there. (51:7b)

  133. Question about the principles of life and death and spiritual beings. (Question: Although we know that spiritual beings and life and death are governed by one and the same principle, we do not understand the exact point. Answer: “Essence and material force are combined to be things. The wandering away of the spirit becomes change.”195 This is the principle of life and death. The questioner did not understand. Further remark: Essence and material force consolidate to become man, and as they disintegrate, they become a spiritual being.

  Further question: When essence and material force consolidate, is this principle attached to material force?)196

  Answer: As the Way of Heaven operates, the myriad things develop and grow. There is (logically) principle first and then material force. Although they coexist at the same time, in the final analysis principle is basic. Man receives it and thus possesses life. (But material force may be clear or turbid.) The clear part of material force becomes his vital force (ch’i), while the turbid part becomes his physical nature. (The clear part belongs to yang while the turbid part belongs to yin.) Consciousness and movement are due to yang, while physical form and body (bones and flesh, skin and hair) are due to yin. The vital force belongs to the heavenly aspect of the soul (hun) and the body is governed by the earthly aspect of the soul (p’o). In his commentary on the Huai-nan Tzu, Kao Yu (fl. 205) said, “Hun is the spirit of yang and p’o is the spirit of yin.”197 By spirit is meant the master of the body and the vital force. Man is born as a result of integration of essence and material force. He possesses this material force only in a certain amount, which in time necessarily becomes exhausted. (This is what is meant by physicians when they say that yin or yang no longer rises or falls.) When exhaustion takes place, the heavenly aspect of the soul and the vital force return to Heaven, and the earthly aspect of the soul and the body return to the Earth, and the man dies. When a man is about to die, the warm material force leaves him and ri
ses. This is called the hun rising. The lower part of his body gradually becomes cold. This is called the p’o falling. Thus as there is life, there is necessarily death, and as there is beginning, there must be an end. What integrates and disintegrates is material force. As to principle, it merely attaches itself to material force, but from the beginning it does not consolidate into a separate thing by itself. However, whatever in one’s functioning that is correct is principle. It need not be spoken of in terms of integration and disintegration. When a man dies, his material force necessarily disintegrates. However, it does not disintegrate completely at once. Therefore in religious sacrifices we have the principle of spiritual influence and response. Whether the material force (or vital force) of ancestors of many generations ago is still there or not cannot be known. Nevertheless, since those who perform the sacrificial rites are their descendants, the material force between them is after all the same. Hence there is the principle by which they can penetrate and respond. But the material force that has disintegrated cannot again be integrated. And yet the Buddhists say that man after death becomes a spiritual being and the spiritual being again becomes a man. If so, then in the universe there would always be the same number of people coming and going, with no need of the creative process of production and reproduction. This is decidedly absurd. (51:18b-19b)

  14. Buddhism

  134. Question: What is the difference between Buddhist non-being and Taoist non-being?

  Answer: For the Taoists, there is still being after all. For example, the saying, “Let there [always] be non-being so we may see their subtlety, and let there [always] be being so we may see their outcome,”198 is an evidence of this. The Buddhists, however, consider heaven and earth as illusory and erroneous and the Four Elements (Earth, Water, Fire, and Wind) as temporary (unreal) aggregates. This means complete non-being. (60:12b)

  135. The mistake of the Buddhists arises from their dislike [of the world] which is the result of their selfishness, and the mistake of the Taoists arises from their trickery which is the result of their selfishness. The mistake of the Buddhists is to dislike and take lightly human affairs and therefore wish completely to turn everything into a void. The mistake of the Taoists is to take advantage of critical situations and opportunities and to resort to tricks and expediency, thus exploiting all kinds of schemes and crafts in the world. That is why military strategy, the art of calculation, and the technique of debate199 today are mostly based on Taoist ideas. (60:12b-13a)

  136. It is not necessary to examine the doctrines of Buddhism and Taoism deeply to understand them. The mere fact that they discard the Three Bonds (between ruler and minister, father and son, and husband and wife) and the Five Constant Virtues (righteousness on the part of the father, deep love on the part of the mother, friendliness on the part of the elder brother, respect on the part of the younger brother, and filial piety on the part of the son) is already a crime of the greatest magnitude. Nothing more need be said about the rest. (60:13a)

  137. Where the Buddhists have lofty views, they are really lofty. Someone asked why they only talk about Emptiness. The Teacher said: They talk about Stubborn Emptiness200 and also True Emptiness. Stubborn Emptiness means that there is Emptiness without anything, whereas True Emptiness means that there is still something. The latter theory is somewhat similar to our Confucian doctrine. However, the Buddhists ignore the universe completely and only pay attention to the mind, very much like the Taoists, who also merely want to preserve the spirit and power [of the mind].201 I-ch’uan (Ch’eng I) said that we can draw a final conclusion [that Buddhism and Confucianism are different] from the manifestations202 of Buddhism alone.203 I do not know what use there is for such doctrines as these. (60:13a-b)

  138. Someone talked about the harm of Chuang Tzu, Lao Tzu, Zen, and [orthodox] Buddhism. The Teacher said: The doctrines of Zen are the most harmful to the Way. Chuang Tzu and Lao Tzu still did not completely destroy moral principles. In the case of [orthodox] Buddhism, human relations are already destroyed. When it comes to Zen, however, from the very start it wipes out all moral principles completely. Looked at this way, Zen has done the greatest harm.

  After a moment he said again: Generally speaking, actually [these schools are all harmful] just the same. In the matter of doing harm, there has never been a case which does not proceed from the smaller to the greater degree. (60:13b)

  139. Ts’ao204 asked how to tell the difference between Confucianism and Buddhism. The Teacher said: Just take the doctrine, “What Heaven imparts to man is called human nature.”205 The Buddhists simply do not understand this, and dogmatically say that nature is empty consciousness. What we Confucianists talk about are concrete principles, and from our point of view they are wrong. They say, “We will not be affected by a single speck of dust [such as distinction of right and wrong or subject and object]. . . . and will not discard a single element of existence (dharma) [such as the minister’s loyalty to the ruler or the son’s filial piety to the father].”206 If one is not affected by any speck of dust, how is it possible for him not to discard a single element of existence? When he arrives at what is called the realm of Emptiness, he does not find any solution. Take the human mind, for example. There is necessarily in it the Five Relations between father and son, ruler and minister, old and young, husband and wife, and friends. When the Buddhists are thorough in their action, they will show no affection in these relationships, whereas when we Confucianists are thoroughgoing in our action, there is affection between father and son, righteousness between ruler and minister, order between old and young, attention to their separate functions between husband and wife, and faithfulness between friends.207 We Confucianists recognize only the moral principles of sincerity and genuineness. Sincerity is the essence of all good deeds. (60:14a)

  140. The only difference between the Confucianists and Buddhists in their discourses on the nature is that the Buddhists talk about emptiness whereas the Confucianists talk about concreteness, and whereas the Buddhists talk about non-being, the Confucianists talk about being. (60:14b)

  141. The Buddhists are characterized by vacuity, whereas we Confucianists are characterized by concreteness. The Buddhists are characterized by duality (of Absolute Emptiness and the illusory world), whereas we Confucianists are characterized by unity (one principle governing all). The Buddhists consider facts and principles as unimportant and pay no attention to them. (60:14b)

  142. With us Confucianists, although the mind is vacuous, principle is concrete. The Buddhists, on the other hand, go straightly to their destination of emptiness and void. (60:14b)

  143. We consider the mind and principle as one but they consider the mind and principle as two. It is not that the two groups purposely [differ] like this; it is the result of their different points of view. From their point of view, the mind is empty and is without principle, while from our point of view, although the mind is empty, all the principles are complete in it. However, although [we] say that the mind and principle are one, [we] fail to discern the selfishness resulting from material desires with which man is endowed in their physical nature. It is because [we] do not see correctly that [we] have this defect. This is why the Great Learning highly values the investigation of things.208 (60:15a-b)

  144. Hsü Tzu-jung209 has a theory that dry and withered things have [only physical] nature but not [the basic] nature [that is identical with principle]. The Teacher said: The nature is merely principle. As there is a thing, there is a principle for it. Where Tzu-jung is wrong is to have mistaken the mind for the nature. This is just like the Buddhists, except that the Buddhists polish the mind to the highest degree of refinement. It is like a lump of something. Having peeled off one layer of skin, they peel off another, until there is no more layer of skin to peel. When the mind is polished to the point of having nothing [else but its true nature], they recognize it as the nature. They do not realize that is precisely what the Sage called the mind. Therefore Hsieh Shang-ts’ai said, “What the Buddhists call the
nature is precisely what the Sage called the mind, and what the Buddhists call the mind is precisely what the Sage called the will.”210 The mind is simply to embrace principle. At bottom the Buddhists do not understand this part, namely principle, and look upon consciousness and movement as the nature. Take the cases of seeing, hearing, speaking, and appearance. With the Sage, in seeing there is the principle of seeing, in hearing there is the principle of hearing, in speaking there is the principle of speaking, in acting there is the principle of acting, and in thinking there is the principle of thinking, as what Viscount Chi called clearness [in seeing], distinctness [in hearing], accordance [with reason in speech], respectfulness [in appearance], and penetration and profundity [in thought].211 The Buddhists recognize only that which can see, hear, speak, think, and move, and consider that to be the nature. Whether the seeing is clear or not, whether the hearing is distinct or not, whether the speech is in accord with reason or not, and whether the thought is penetrating and profound or not, they do not care at all. No matter whether it goes this way or that way, they always accept it as nature. They are most afraid of the very mention of the word principle, and want to get rid of it also. This is exactly Kao Tzu’s doctrine that “What is inborn is called nature.”212

  Shen Hsien213 asked: Zen Buddhists also regard “raising the eyebrow and winking the eye,”214 and consciousness and movement as “playing with the spirit”215 and condemn it. Why?

  Answer: Simply because it is playing with the spirit. It is merely polishing the spirit to be so refined that it is brilliant and no longer coarse.

  Hsien asked: The Buddhists say that all things will be annihilated. The Law-body (Dharmakāya) alone remains forever and will not be extinct. Is this the only one they call the Law-body?