The end of the Tippoo Sultan made Britain’s East India Company dominant in southern India, but his passing left a power vacuum that was exploited by Dhoondiah Waugh, a former mercenary. Dhoondiah formed a formidable force of around 40,000 men and began to ravage the countryside, the brigand terming himself the ‘King of Two Worlds’. This was Wellesley’s first campaign as an independent commander and he learned a great deal in the following campaign about fighting irregular forces. Living off the land meant the enemy was capable of swifter movement, but Wellesley accepted the limitation of a large baggage train, knowing that seizing provisions from the countryside would alienate the native population. After four months, he finally cornered Dhoondiah’s forces at Conagul on 10 September 1800. The bandits proved no match for disciplined regulars in open battle and Dhoondiah was killed in the brief battle that followed.
Wellesley’s next campaign was very influential for India’s future. The Mahratta Princes ruled most of central India and constantly fought between themselves. The East India Company decided to intervene in one of these disputes, particularly since Scindia, Rajah of Gwalior, had French sympathies. By 1803 this had turned into a full-scale war, and two columns were sent against Scindia and his allies, General Lake invading from Cawnpore in the north with Wellesley advancing from the south west. He had been promoted to Major General in the East India Company Army in April 1802 and one of his first decisions was to divide his army, placing Stevenson in command of roughly half his force, knowing that it would aid supply and mobility.
However, the Mahrattas had modern weaponry and regular troops in addition to a host of militia. Wellesley encountered a huge army under the Princes of Scindia and Barar near the village of Assaye. Having expected to find only enemy infantry in the vicinity, he was surprised to find their entire army present, with an overwhelming force of cavalry. His own forces consisted of 13,500 men, whereas the Mahrattas’ had 40,000 regular soldiers, around 50,000 levied militia and a substantial artillery train. They occupied a seven-mile frontage near the confluence of the rivers Kaitna and Juah. With the enemy present in such numbers a frontal attack was unthinkable, so Wellesley decided to attack their left by crossing the river Kaitna. Using his cavalry to cover the movement, he ordered the infantry to cross by a ford. The Mahrattas swiftly recovered from their surprise and fired on the troops as they crossed, inflicting some loss.
Between the two rivers, Wellesley knew that he was relatively safe from cavalry movement against his flanks. Yet this was not like facing Dhoondiah’s ill-disciplined brigands. The regular Mahratta infantry swiftly redeployed to face the threat and the European-trained artillery took a heavy toll on the British as they advanced. Attacking the enemy right and centre, the guns were largely silenced, but an attack on the partially fortified village of Assaye was sharply repelled. Lieutenant-Colonel William Orrock had attacked prematurely and, since his troops therefore lacked support, they suffered heavy losses. Colonel Maxwell’s cavalry met and defeated an attempt by Scindian cavalry on the British right flank, which tried to exploit this success, and the Indian army retreated to a new position with their backs to the River Juah. A determined general advance with Maxwell’s horsemen in support finally broke the enemy infantry and the Mahrattas fled.
This was one of the hardest fought battles of Wellesley’s career, but it made his reputation as a commander. Losses were severe at 1,600, and Wellesley had had two horses shot from under him. Eight of his ten staff officers sustained wounds or were unhorsed by enemy fire.33 The Mahrattas lost approximately 6,000 casualties and suffered a severe defeat.
Though the victory won him acclaim both in India and back in England, Wellesley received some criticism for his handling of the battle. Stevenson’s force had been too far away to intervene in time and he had not anticipated encountering such numbers. This was partially due to the huge numbers of enemy cavalry, which made effective reconnaissance virtually impossible. The flanking march of four miles across the front of a much larger army, combined with a river crossing, was also a serious risk. 34 It testifies to his incredible self-confidence. He had relied on surprise but his foe had been disobliging and nearly overcame his force. Nevertheless, he was generous towards Lieutenant-Colonel Orrock for his foolhardy attack on Assaye. Although he had endangered the army’s right wing, Wellesley felt excessive zeal was to blame, feeling unable to castigate a man who had miscalculated but acted with good intentions.
Though the war dragged on, Assaye had broken the back of Mahratta resistance and by the end of 1803 they were suing for peace. Although a second conflict broke out, continuing for another two years, Wellesley felt that he had gained all he could in India. He left with his financial situation improved by several instances of prize money and the increased pay for his military governorship. More importantly, his reputation had been enhanced considerably and, though family influence had helped, he had ably demonstrated his skill as a commander.
Despite his successes, his prospects were relatively bleak on his return to England. He may have reached the rank of Major General, but, as an East India Company promotion, it did not have equal standing in the British army. In addition, the Duke of York had not confirmed his promotion and resented the fact that he had superseded Baird at Seringapatam. In any case Indian promotions were regarded with suspicion in Whitehall, the bureaucrats resenting anything outside their control. Richard had lost his position in India and the Wellesleys were suffering from a political smear campaign, Arthur being obliged to champion their cause within an increasingly factional House of Commons.
However, he had received the Order of the Bath for his services and his renewed advances to Kitty Pakenham were now received favourably by her family. They married on 10 April 1806. Naturally both were changed after a long separation and when he first caught sight of her again Arthur whispered: ‘She has grown ugly, by Jove!’35 to his brother Gerald, who conducted the service. Although she was to bear him two sons, they soon encountered problems. Arthur was accustomed to obedience, yet Kitty showed an alarming tendency to overlook his instructions, particularly with regard to household finances and maintaining appearances. It would not prove the romantic ideal that either had hoped for.
Arthur’s first appointment, the command of a brigade in Hastings on the south coast, was a disappointment. By 1806 the invasion threat had receded and it was an unimportant posting. However, with over a hundred Major Generals on half pay awaiting commands, he was lucky to receive an active command. When friends expressed surprise on his acceptance of the post he replied: ‘I am nimmukwallah, as we say in the East; that is, I have eaten of the King’s salt, and, therefore, I conceive it to be my duty to serve with unhesitating zeal and cheerfulness, when and whenever the King or his Government may think it proper to employ me.’36 This reply became famous during the Victorian era, encapsulating Wellesley’s devotion to King and country.
His hard work on his political career also began to pay off, and he served as an MP for several districts in quick succession. Ireland was still a hotbed of dissent and hopes to relax the laws against religious dissenters were dashed when King George III refused to ratify them, with great insensitivity, on Saint Patrick’s Day. The entire Cabinet resigned in protest and the King was obliged to ask Lord Portland to form a new Government. The position of Lord Lieutenant for Ireland was unpopular and it was with some difficulty that Lord Richmond was persuaded to accept it. However, this proved fortuitous for Wellesley, since Richmond offered him the post of Chief Secretary for Ireland. He was finally part of the Government.
Dublin had changed since Arthur’s time as an ADC to Buckingham. The Act of Union with Great Britain in 1800 brought about the abolition of the Irish House of Commons and direct rule from London pleased neither Catholics nor Protestants. The country was in desperate need of reform, but Wellesley believed that attempted improvements only exacerbated the situation:
No political measure which you could adopt would alter the people of this country. They are disaf
fected to the British Government; they don’t feel the benefits of their situation; attempts to render it better either do not reach their minds, or they are represented to them as additional injuries; and in fact we have no strength here but our army.37
This reveals a great deal about Wellesley’s character. Despite his heritage, he disassociated himself from his roots and considered himself an Englishman. Indeed, he regularly spoke of the Anglo-Irish as a force of occupation. Already a firm Tory, Ireland made him even more reactionary. The horrendous violence of the Great Rebellion of 1798 was a recent memory and the Government would do anything to avoid similar unrest. Consequently, he acted cautiously in Dublin, endeavouring to maintain the status quo and shunning change. Though he continued to enforce the religious laws he did so with as much sensitivity and moderation as possible, and his term of office was relatively peaceful but unremarkable.
The war with France had reached a stalemate. The French had been decisively beaten at sea in 1805, but naval battles alone could not win the war for Britain and it was difficult to determine where to challenge the French on land with any prospect of success. Furthermore, the naval struggle would recommence if the French could rebuild their fleet. The Danes possessed a sizeable navy and it seemed likely that they were about to submit to the French embargo against British trade. Reluctantly, the government decided that neutral Denmark could not be trusted and that their fleet must be secured. Wellesley was eager to win laurels in Europe and requested a leave of absence from Richmond to join the Danish expedition, commanding a brigade under Lord Cathcart. Under orders to obtain the fleet without violence if possible, Cathcart negotiated with the Danes but they were justly outraged and refused to comply.
As the British set about investing Copenhagen, Wellesley’s Brigade was sent to block an approaching Danish relief force at Kioge. This was one of the first occasions that the 95th Regiment saw action, and the riflemen mounted an effective skirmish line in front of the advancing redcoats that soon rousted the Danes out of their hurriedly improvised defences and drove them from the village. The largely militia-based force proved no match for regular troops and 1,700 Danes were captured, with 356 casualties, compared to minor British losses. Many Danes were taken prisoner due to their inability to run fast enough, since many were shod in wooden clogs.38
The British completed their siege works and offered the city a chance to reconsider its position. Cathcart was pleased to have Wellesley on hand during negotiations as a Government representative and attempts were made to lengthen the talks since he hoped to avoid unnecessary casualties.39 However, the city possessed a strong garrison and they did not believe that the British would fire on a neutral city. Reluctantly, Cathcart opened fire on 2 September and, following a three-day bombardment, the Danes capitulated.
In Copenhagen, Rifleman Green was horrified at the damage British mortars and rockets had inflicted: ‘I was astonished to see the havoc our bombardment had made. Whole streets lay in ruins; churches burnt down; and we had hard work to get through the streets to the dock-yard, to go on board, our road being blocked up with bricks, stones, tiles, and timber.’40 Rockets were inaccurate and had negligible effect on battlefields, but their destructive power against towns and cities was awesome. In addition to military deaths, an estimated 1,600 Danish civilians had been killed with a further 1,000 wounded. Wellesley had opposed the bombardment and the memories of the destruction and civilian casualties it wrought led him to avoid similar tactics in future.
As a military action the operation had been stunningly effective, yet without an official declaration of war it violated the rules of war and shocked Europe. Though dictated by necessity, it was widely condemned and the previously neutral Denmark now sided uneasily with France. The British left Copenhagen without firing the docks, as some ministers had suggested, perhaps believing that: ‘The principle of defence through offence may be carried too far…’41 Wellesley gained another battlefield victory and considerable prize money from the captured shipping, but little glory. Significantly, no medals were struck for Copenhagen.
Although allowed to resume his office in Ireland on his return, Wellesley despaired at the prospects it offered and tried to gain another military appointment. With the local juntas in Spain and Portugal asking for assistance, the British Government decided to intervene in the Peninsula and Wellesley was offered a place in the expeditionary force sent there. He handed over his political responsibilities to John Wilson Croker, MP for County Downpatrick. Just before his departure, Croker noticed his friend in deep contemplation and enquired about his deliberations:
…I am thinking about of the French that I am going to fight. I have not seen them since the campaign in Flanders, when they were capital soldiers, and a dozen years of victory under Buonaparte must have made them better still. They have… a new system of strategy, which has out-manoeuvred and overwhelmed all the armies of Europe. ‘Tis enough to make one thoughtful; but no matter: my die is cast, they may overwhelm me, but I don’t think they will out-manoeuvre me. First, because I am not afraid of them, as everybody else seems to be; and secondly, because if what I hear of their system of manoeuvres be true, I think it a false one against steady troops. I suspect all the continental armies were more than half-beaten before the battle was begun. I, at least, will not be frightened beforehand.42
Arriving at Corunna, he received what he considered unreliable reports from the junta of Galicia but, sailing down the coastline, the Bishop of Oporto and representatives of the Supreme Junta provided better information. Though their troops and militia were poorly armed and trained, the majority of Portuguese were firmly opposed to the occupation: ‘I am informed that there is no such thing as a French party; and indeed, from what I have seen… I should imagine that it could not be very safe for any man to declare himself in favour of the French.’43
Wellesley landed at Mondego Bay on 30 July 1808 and began disembarking troops the next day. It was a difficult coastline for such an operation and the thunderous surf claimed several lives as boats were upset bringing men ashore. His commissariat proved unequal to the task of organising the supplies, munitions and transport for 14,000 men and Wellesley had to intervene personally. It took eight days to unload the army and its equipment. Luckily the French made no attempt to oppose the landing, due to the fact that Junot’s forces were spread out in garrisons across the country and he was having difficulty concentrating them.
Despite his logistical problems, Wellesley had a large force at his command, which he considered comparable with the French. He had received reports of 20,000 French soldiers in Portugal but considered this an over-estimate. In fact, the French possessed 26,000 men, but not all of these would be available to oppose him. In the knowledge that relieving the capital would inspire the growing insurgency, he decided to march upon Lisbon. Less creditably, he also hoped to defeat the French before the arrival of senior officers sent to assume command.
In order to give his commander time to gather his forces, General Delaborde tried to block Wellesley’s progress at Roliça. He had only four battalions (around 4,000 men) to oppose the British but took up a strong position on the hills behind the village. Wellesley advanced steadily on his centre, but after some skirmishing and a brief exchange of artillery fire discovered the French had withdrawn to a fall back position above the Gorge of Columbiera. An entire morning had been wasted in these manoeuvres, but Wellesley decided to repeat the same tactics, hoping to defeat Delaborde before he could be reinforced.
The ridge the French stood on was broken by four gullies and the slopes were partially wooded and confusing for the advancing British. As the skirmishers engaged once more, Colonel Lake led the 29th Regiment up one of the gullies in an impetuous attack. As the 29th formed at the top of the gully they were fired upon from the front and both flanks. As if this were not bad enough, a French regiment below them on the slopes mounted a bayonet charge on their rear and the 29th broke and fled down the gully, leaving many dead behind them i
ncluding Lake himself.
Wellesley felt obliged to order a general assault in an attempt to extricate the 29th, but the French resisted stubbornly. Though assailed from both flanks as well as his centre, Delaborde’s regiments poured musket fire down upon the infantry toiling up the slopes and then charged them when they approached the summit. The broken ground confused and disrupted the advancing troops and three assaults were repulsed in this manner.44 However, the British superiority in artillery began to tell and, knowing he would soon be overwhelmed, Delaborde withdrew. The retreat was well conducted, with French cavalry covering the infantry as their battalions retired in successive pairs, and the lack of British cavalry hampered the pursuit. However, when the road narrowed near the defile of Zambugeira the troops became disordered and the French lost three of their five guns to their pursuers.
Wellesley had won his first battle in the Peninsula. However, both sides had some cause to be pleased with the encounter. Delaborde had only suffered around 600 casualties and had managed to delay the British for an entire day. Had the British possessed more cavalry the French might have suffered greater losses. From the British point of view, they had overcome a strong defensive position and, though they outnumbered the French, only about four of their battalions had been engaged, amounting to a near parity of numbers. They had sustained 487 casualties, but admittedly they had a great advantage with Colonel Robe’s eighteen cannons easily outgunning a mere five French artillery pieces.
As the British advanced southwards, news that ships had been sighted off the coast came through and Wellesley met with them at Maceira Bay and marched to cover their landing. He drew his army up on two ridges near the village of Vimeiro. Sir Harry Burrard had arrived to assume command and decided to proceed with caution, knowing the enemy’s superiority in numbers. He ordered Wellesley to halt the march and await further reinforcements. Sir John Moore was expected within the week. Wellesley disagreed with his superior, but had no choice but to obey. Crucially for subsequent events, Burrard chose to stay aboard ship that night, leaving Wellesley in nominal command.45
Wellington Against Massena Page 5