Wellington Against Massena

by David Buttery

  However, Buonaparte’s youth belied his ability, and he quickly proved himself an exceptional commander-in-chief and, though relations were never easy between them, Massena soon acknowledged his remarkable talent. The young commander also changed the spelling of his name to make it sound less Italian. From 1796 Bonaparte’s energy and drive helped the French break the impasse they had reached. He successfully invaded Piedmont, where he induced the Austrians and Sardinians to divide, allowing him to concentrate his might on the Sardinian Army and defeat it. Once the King of Sardinia had capitulated, the French redirected their main efforts into ousting the Austrians from the Italian states. Bonaparte had turned the sideshow into the main theatre of the war.

  Massena played a key role in much of the fighting, taking part in virtually all the major battles, with his division often spearheading the advance. He fought at Montenotte, Lodi, Castiglione, Bassano, Caldiero, Arcola and Rivoli, amongst others, amassing a wealth of experience. Knowing the power of personal example in the French Army, he was unafraid of taking part in the fighting when necessary and personally led attacks in many engagements, notably at the Bridge of Lodi, where the French pressed the Austrian rearguard. Accompanied by other high-ranking officers, he led the second assault over the bridge into a storm of musketry and cannon fire and two of his aides de camp were wounded in the struggle around the guns the Austrians had placed to command the bridge.

  Massena secured the French left flank at Arcola when Bonaparte tried to outflank General D’Alvintzy’s army in the marshes, and held the village of Porcile against repeated counter-attacks on the first day of the battle. On the third day he lured the Croatian troops defending Arcola village into the marsh by placing a weak force before them to invite attack. When they pushed this unit back along the causeway, the enemy fell into Massena’s ambush, concealed in the ditches on their flanks, and was crushed. Following up this success, Massena personally led a rush over the bridge before Arcola, where so many men had been cut down in the previous two days. Flourishing his bicorne hat on the point of his sword, he led his troops into the village, which was taken at the point of the bayonet. Though a cautious strategist and tactician, Massena was physically tough despite his small stature and knew when to inspire the men by personal example. ADC Paul Thiebault recalled his impression of his commander:

  Massena had no education nor primary instruction, but his face bespoke sagacity and energy; his glance was that of the eagle; in the attitude of his head, always raised and slightly thrown to the left; there was an imposing dignity… his gesture was commanding, his ardour and activity indescribable; his speech, curt in the extreme, testified to the lucidity of his thought… he was a man made for authority and command…64

  It was the Battle of Rivoli on 14 January 1797 that decided the first Italian campaign and enabled the French to take the war into Austria itself. This was a great victory for Bonaparte, but Massena’s contribution was crucial for its success. In order to defeat the Austrians, Bonaparte had to determine which of their two assaults was the stronger so that he could counter-attack, isolate and destroy this force. Once it was determined that Joubert’s division was under attack by the stronger of the two Austrian armies, Bonaparte rushed to support Joubert, ordering Massena to reinforce them. Massena’s division had already fought off a serious attack at Verona and, leaving adequate men for the city’s defence, he conducted a forced night march. Covering fifteen miles with remarkable swiftness, he arrived just in time to swing the battle in favour of the French. The Austrians were decisively beaten, suffering 3,376 casualties, losing nine guns and leaving 7,000 prisoners, with D’Alvintzy himself narrowly evading capture.

  Yet Massena and his battered division were not permitted a rest after two days marching and fighting. General Provera was wreaking havoc in the south and set on relieving the besieged fortress city of Mantua, crucial for the domination of northern Italy. Embarking on another forced march, the tired division covered a further thirty miles to meet the threat. Provera’s force was trapped between Massena and the troops besieging the city and 7,000 men were forced to surrender. Mantua capitulated a few weeks later. It was a glorious end to the campaign, with the Austrians in full retreat. Bonaparte knew how close he had come to defeat at Rivoli and was duly grateful for Massena’s lightning marches. In the presence of the troops he praised his conduct, acclaiming him: ’l’Enfant chéri de la Victoire.’65

  Massena’s actions during the whole campaign encapsulated the new style of warfare that Bonaparte was introducing to Europe. In brief, this was mobility and endurance with an emphasis on attack. In many ways the Austrians had been outmanoeuvred and frightened out of the Italian states by the speed of French marches and constant, unexpected attacks on their flanks or rear, inducing them to withdraw. Though a decisive victory, Rivoli was not on the scale of later battles, which would appal Europe with the extent of their slaughter.

  Massena spent some time in Paris in the wake of the military triumph. Bonaparte, ever mindful of advertising his victories, sent him as part of a delegation to present Austrian standards and captured arms to the Directory, and the general was showered with honours including a ceremonial sword of honour. Here he was persuaded by Barras to stand for political office. Although far from being the only soldier to do so (Schérer, Kleber and Augereau also stood) his attempt proved a near farce, ending in a shattering electoral defeat.66 He achieved little beyond proving his political naiveté in allowing himself to be drawn into Barras’s schemes and irritating his political opponents, among whom was Carnot, who would later prove obstructive towards him as War Minister. It seems that Bonaparte did not resent his ill-advised venture into politics, probably deriving some amusement from it.

  1799 brought disaster for the French Republic. Though initially welcomed as liberators, the French confiscated and stole vast sums, hoping to restore their depleted treasury, rapidly alienating the northern Italian states. Levies were even demanded from neutral states and the Vatican itself, the Republic having little respect for Papal authority with the Pope’s opposition to their new order. Smarting at the humiliations inflicted upon Austria by the treaty of Campo-Formio, the Aulic Council of Vienna pressed their sovereign to avenge their losses and a second coalition was formed against France with Britain and Russia. War was declared on 1 March 1799 and, though the French initially made progress, they were soon in retreat.

  Previously, Massena had received his first independent command with the leadership of the Army of Helvetia (Switzerland). The Swiss Confederation, having refused the offer of French ‘protection’, had been invaded and occupied after brief resistance and Massena had established himself at Zurich. It was a vital strategic point, being at an important road junction, but Massena had constructed fortifications to the north, which dominated the town rather than improving its defences. Lake Zurich, twenty-three miles long, protected his flank and the mountainous nature of the area was ideal for defence. This was just as well, since the Allies rapidly defeated the French armies to the north and south. General Jourdan was defeated by the Archduke Charles, the Emperor’s brother and the foremost general of Austria, and retreated through the Black Forest to add the remnants of his force to Massena’s.

  In the south the French suffered a string of reverses, culminating in a major defeat at Austro-Russian hands at the Battle of Novi on 15 August, in which General Joubert was killed. The redoubtable General Alexander Suvórov commanded the Russian contingent and was considered one of the greatest generals of the eighteenth century. As a stern disciplinarian he pushed his men to their limits, demanding frequent forced marches and relying on massed formations to overwhelm his opponents. Though no great strategist, he had succeeded against the Poles, Persians, Tartars and Turks and had a reputation for brutality after ordering the sacking of Ismail in Bessarabia.

  With the treasury exhausted once more, the Directory had failed to supply Massena’s army with enough supplies and he therefore refused the order to invade the Austrian Tyrol,
offering his resignation if they objected. Having withdrawn into Switzerland his army was now the only intact force standing between the Allies and an invasion of France. Bonaparte had left France the previous year on a military expedition to Egypt, so the Republic had only Massena to rely upon.

  Though France could now be invaded through Germany or Italy, it was strategically unsound for the Allies to leave Massena in the geographical bastion formed by Switzerland, since he could fall on their flanks or rear as they marched. Soon Switzerland was invaded from the north and an army under the Archduke Charles met the French at the first Battle of Zurich on 4 June. Massena had abandoned Zurich itself and withdrawn to the entrenched camp above on the Zurichberg. In the struggle that followed, Massena hurried from one threatened sector to another as the Austrian assault threatened to overwhelm them. The Austrians lost over 2,000 casualties and failed to carry the defences, but the action had been a close one. Torrential rain discouraged the Austrians from attempting a second assault the following day, the wet not only hampering musketry but also making the precipitous slopes extremely treacherous to climb. Massena used this pause to withdraw to the stronger position of the Albis Ridge centred on the Ütilberg. Having possession of the town, the Austrians could claim a victory, but the French still dominated the northern approach and they could not advance beyond it.

  The Austrians now considered Massena virtually defeated. The Archduke marched elements of his army north towards the Netherlands as a Russian army under General Rimski Korsákov reinforced Zurich. For an entire month Massena dispassionately surveyed his enemies massing below him, the Russians in the town and the Austrians at the eastern end of Lake Zurich. In Paris the Government was unhappy at his immobility and pressed him to act. He responded angrily:

  Since I am informed that my detractors are trying to criticise my military operations and what they call my inaction, I must point out to you that during the past two months I have repeatedly called attention to the terrible lack of supplies provided for this army… If I had fertile country ahead of me, there might be some point in advancing. But the further I move forward, the further I should be removed from my sources of supply… and if I am too firmly convinced that the movement which you order me to make is premature and would lead to disaster, then, Citizen Directors, you need only approve my renewed request that you will appoint a successor to relieve me in command…67

  In recent years generals had been executed for failing the Republic so this defiance required some courage, but Massena was backed up by military common sense and though the Directors considered removing him, they relented.

  Suvórov, now appointed commander-in-chief of the Allied forces, had decided to dislodge Massena by a circuitous march on his rear which, when combined with attacks from Korsákov and the Austrians, would trap Massena in a pincer movement. Advancing through the St. Gotthard Pass Russian progress was slowed by narrow tracks, gorges and rushing mountain streams. Snow and mist, along with French resistance, made surmounting such obstacles even more difficult, with General Lecourbe’s division, experienced in Alpine fighting, mounting ambushes and destroying bridges, to impede their march. On 28 September Suvorov was appalled to learn that the forces at Zurich had been defeated.

  Massena had played the waiting game long enough and, following careful observation of enemy positions, came down from the mountains to mount a twin assault. Massena led the attack on the Russians deployed outside the town and forced them back within Zurich’s walls after fierce fighting. Meanwhile, a second force under General Soult crossed the lake and attacked the Austrians under General Hotze, positioned around the town of Uznach. Hotze and his chief-of-staff were both shot down by French skirmishers as they brought up reinforcements and the Austrians were in full retreat after two days’ fighting. Bottled up within the town, Korsákov realised that he stood little chance of defending it with the heights in enemy possession and ordered a full retreat. However, the French mounted a swift pursuit and the Russians were routed, leaving 7,000 men as prisoners along with all their guns and baggage.

  The unexpected move on his rear caught Massena off guard, but he reacted calmly and turned upon Suvórov, coming very close to trapping the Russians in the passes. Although Suvórov managed to fight his way out, he did so at the loss of around half his force, eventually limping back over the Rhine with only 14,000 men. The second battle of Zurich from 25 September–10 October 1799 was a triumph for Massena and his crowning achievement. He held out against superior forces and timed his counter-attack to perfection, defeating one of the foremost generals of the era. He achieved this through patience and refusing to be bullied by his political masters. In contrast, Bonaparte’s Egyptian campaign had faltered and, sensing impending defeat, he returned with the excuse that France was under grave threat. Embarrassingly, he was informed in Paris that Massena had saved France in his absence. The coup d’état of 18 Brumaire made Bonaparte one of three consuls ruling France. He would rapidly outmanoeuvre his fellows and take power, these events largely overshadowing Massena’s victory. However, it is unlikely they could have taken place without it.

  Bonaparte’s seizure of power brought Massena command of the Army of Italy, an appointment he had long coveted. Yet the army was a shadow of its former self, following a succession of defeats and neglect. He was obliged to resort to stern measures to deter desertion and restore order amongst the mutinous ranks. His main task was to preserve what was left of French territory in Italy and maintain communications with France. However, on 5 April 1800 a major Austrian offensive began under the command of Baron Michael von Melas, eventually obliging Massena to fall back on the city of Genoa. The Genoese Republic was kept in a state of ‘enforced neutrality’ by the French and the people were only kept in order by force of arms. Its defences were strong enough to withstand siege, the city being walled and surrounded by a ring of hills surmounted by a stone rampart. Aware of this likelihood, Massena had already started improving these defences. Though the city was a port, the harbour was virtually useless to the French, with the British Navy dominating the Gulf of Genoa.

  Admiral Lord Keith offered the French terms on 24 April, but Massena replied that he intended to resist and the Austrians began major siege operations in conjunction with the British naval blockade. One of the first Austrian moves was to sever the city’s main water supply via their aqueduct. The bread mills relied on water for power and, since the Genoese Government maintained a monopoly on production, supplies soon dwindled. Soldiers took priority for food supplies, but they had to be content with a quarter pound of horseflesh and a ration of rancid bread, the composition of which contained more hair powder and sawdust than flour. Soon all the dogs and cats in the city were caught and eaten and citizens would brave enemy fire by following in the wake of French sorties to cut grass and nettles for sustenance. Jean-Baptiste Marbot, one of Massena’s new aides, left a harrowing account of the siege:

  My courage fails me to describe what the garrison and population of Genoa had to suffer during the two months… The ravages of famine, war, typhus were enormous… every day seven or eight hundred corpses of the inhabitants, of every age, sex and class, were picked up in the streets and buried in an immense trench filled with quicklime behind the church of Carignan. The number of victims reached 30,000, nearly all starved to death.68

  In order to get their guns close enough to bombard the city walls; the Austrians made constant attempts to capture the outlying forts. Some changed hands several times, with the garrison obliged to mount regular sorties in their support. During one of these sallies General Soult was wounded and captured. Massena had difficulty maintaining morale amidst squalid conditions and the townsfolk were on the edge of rebellion.

  Several attempts were made to contact France, and on 2 May Colonel Reille managed to run the British blockade and bring dispatches from Paris. He learned that Bonaparte was preparing to cross the Alps and invade Italy, so there was a chance of relief. It took an iron will to endure, but Massena�
�s determination alone could not make the city stand. On 29 May a revolt by the Genoese was suppressed with difficulty and desertion was widespread. Massena knew that Bonaparte was weeks or even days away, but had to yield to the inevitable when the food supplies ran out. To the end he tried to prolong the negotiations, and managed to win favourable terms. The troops were permitted to leave with their arms and baggage, with Lord Keith repeatedly saying: ‘…General, your defence has been so heroic that we can refuse you nothing.’69

  The garrison evacuated Genoa on 6 June, yet even these generous concessions were not enough for Massena and he gained a safe conduct for two aides to ride and inform Bonaparte of the city’s capitulation. On 14 June 1800 Napoleon won his celebrated victory at Marengo, a major step towards gaining his crown. Yet it was a very close victory, and the presence of the Austrian troops surrounding Genoa may have made all the difference. Commiserating with an Austrian delegate during the peace talks Berthier remarked: ‘It must be a consolation to have been beaten only by a fine army under the greatest general in the world.’ The Austrian officer replied briskly, ‘The battle of Marengo was not lost here, but before Genoa.’70

  Following the siege Massena was physically drained and suffering from severe emotional strain. On 13 August 1800 he was relieved of command and allowed to go into temporary retirement on full pay. He spent most of the next five years at his château in Reuil near Paris and was grateful to be able to spend time with his wife and children. The First Consul became increasingly powerful during this period and on 18 May 1804 was crowned Emperor Napoleon I of France. Mindful of the debt he owed to the great captains who had placed him on the throne, the new Emperor created fourteen active and four honorary marshals of the empire, Massena being among the first to receive the marshal’s baton.