Catherine the Great & Potemkin

by Simon Sebag Montefiore

  23 GARF 728.1.416.47, L 145, and RGADA 5.85.1.104, L 146, CII to GAP.

  24 Cyrus Ghani, Iran and the Rise of Reza Shah – Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power pp 1–2.

  25 Pole Carew CO/R/3/95, May 1781, unpublished. On Persian expedition: AAE Mémoires et Documents Russie vol 10 pp 113–224 esp. 139 and 191, including account of Hablitz and Comte de Ségur to Comte de Vergennes 15 October 1786. Passe Turco-Tatar Present Soviétique (1986): Michel Lesure, L’Expedition d’Astrabad 1781–2: Est-il Encore un Secret d’Etat? 3 September 1780 Order of Prince Potemkin to College of Admiralty – Opisanie del Arkhiva Morskago ministerstva za vremya s poloviny XVIII-go do nachala XIX stoletiya, St Petersburg 1877–82 vol 3 p 629 no 724/111, cited in Lesure. On the Armenian question: GAP wanted to create an ‘Armenian Project’ to run parallel with his ‘Greek Project’ and throughout his career he pursued the idea, promoting Armenian clergymen just as he did Greek ones. Bruess, pp196–7. For more on this, see Chapters 17, 18, 19.

  26 B&F vol 1 pp 154–8, Cobenzl to JII 23 May 1781; p 207, Cobenzl to JII 26 August 1781. JII–CII (Arneth) letter XXXII, JII to CII, and letter LXXXIV, CII to JII.

  27 B&F vol 1 p 141, Cobenzl to JII 5 April 1781. Harris p 367, H to Stormont 8/19 June and 25 June/6 July 1781.

  28 B&F vol 1 p 197, JII to Cobenzl 19 August 1781; p 207, Cobenzl to JII 26 August 1781. PRO FO Secretary of State: State Papers, Foreign, cyphers SP 65/3 no 94, Harris to Stormont 25 June/6 July 1781.

  29 RGADA 5.85.1.490, L 146, CII to GAP. Harris p 382, H to Stormont 14/25 July 1781.

  CHAPTER 16: THREE MARRIAGES AND A CROWN

  1 JII–CII (Arneth) letter XLIX, CII to JII 7/18 December 1781. B&F vol 1 p 170, Count Cobenzl to JII 5 July 1781.

  2 Harris p 391, H to Viscount Stormont 10/21 and 17/28 September 1781; pp 399–408, 21 October/1 November 1781; p 394, 21 September/2 October 1781. B&F vol 1 p 209, Cobenzl to JII 26 August 1781.

  3 B&F vol 1 p 226 12 September 1781; p 291, 18 January 1782; vol 2 p 75, 1 November 1786, all Cobenzl to JII. Wiegel quoted in RP 3.1 p 10.

  4 RGADA 5.85.1.401, L 148, CII to GAP.

  5 Casanova vol 10 ch 8 pp 190–7.

  6 Ségur, Memoirs (Shelley) p 189.

  7 RGADA 11.867.12, Grand Hetman Branicki to GAP 9 April NS 1775, Warsaw. RGADA 11.867.1–60, unpublished. The correspondence of Branicki with GAP is a study of the Russo-Polish relationship between 1775 and 1791. I have used it to illustrate the relationship between uncle and nephew and GAP’s Polish policies, but its window into Polish relations is much too detailed for this book, though future scholars will find it invaluable. As early as 1775, it was accepted at the Court that GAP was protecting Branicki and fostering his power as his Polish party. For example, see SIRIO (1911) 135.68, Vice-Chancellor Ivan Osterman to O. M. Stackelberg 7 December 1775, Moscow.

  8 Zamoyski, Last King of Poland p 291.

  9 Dimsdale 27 August 1781.

  10 There is a legend that the marriage of Nadezhda Engelhardt and Shepelev was the latter’s reward for killing Prince Peter M. Golitsyn in a duel in 1775. Shepilev is supposed to have killed Golitsyn at Potemkin’s request because Golitsyn was flirting with Catherine. There is no evidence for any of this: Golitsyn was actually killed by a man named Lavrov and not by Shepelev at all. The marriage did not take place for another five years – a long time for Shepilev to wait for his reward. In any case, a vindictive duel was not Potemkin’s style. See Catherine’s letter to GAP on the duel, RGADA 1.1/1.54.130, L 79, probably in October/November 1775.

  11 B&F vol 1 p 291, 18 January 1782; vol 2 p 75, 1 November 1786; vol 1 p 93, 13 December 1780, all Cobenzl to JII.

  12 RGADA 11.901.5, P. M. Skavronsky to GAP 20 June 1784, Vienna. RGADA 11.901.19, Skavronsky to GAP 4/15 June 1785, Naples, unpublished.

  13 Vigée Lebrun vol 1 pp 192–4.

  14 RGADA 11.857.8, Countess A. V. Branicka to GAP ud, unpublished.

  15 RGADA 11.857.40, Branicka to GAP ud, unpublished.

  16 Wiegel 1 (1891) p 43.

  17 Harris p 391, H to Stormont 7/18 September 1781.

  18 B&F vol 1 p 282, Cobenzl to JII 18 January 1782. Harris p 412, H to Stormont 9/20 November 1781; p 408, 21 October/1 November 1781.

  19 Arneth, Joseph II u. Leopold von Toscana vol 1 pp 114–24, 5 June 1782. B&F vol 1 p 301, JII to Cobenzl 19 February 1782. Roderick E. McGrew Paul I p 129. SIRIO 23: 145 and SIRIO 23: 157–9, CII to Paul 25 April and 7 June 1782. D. M. Griffiths, ‘The Rise and Fall of the Northern System’ p 565. Ransel, Politics p 211. SIRIO 9: 64. B&F vol 1 p 342, JII to Cobenzl 13 November 1782.

  20 B&F vol 1 pp 262, 318, Cobenzl to JII 4 December 1781 and 18 July 1782.

  21 RGADA 7.2.2607, GAP to CII, CII to Prince Viazemsky etc.

  22 SIRIO 23: 621, CII to Grimm 6 April 1795.

  23 B&F vol 1 p 318, 18 July 1782.

  24 RGADA 5.85.1.121, L 150, CII to GAP 3 June 1782. Also RGVIA 271.1.31.1106, M. S. Potemkin to GAP 1 June 1782, unpublished.

  25 Harris p 447, H to Charles James Fox 10/21 June 1782.

  26 JII–CII (Arneth) p 136, JII to CII and CII to JII 12 July and 5/26 July 1782.

  27 JII–CII (Arneth) p 169, letter XXIV, JII to CII 13 November 1782; letter LXV, CII to JII 10 September 1782. B&F vol 1 p 344, Cobenzl to JII 4 December 1782. Harris, H to Lord Grantham 23 December/3 January 1783.

  28 B&F vol 1 p 344, Cobenzl to JII 4 December 1782.

  29 Ségur, Mémoires 1827 vol 2 pp 401, 382–3. Castera vol 3 p 307.

  30 AVPRI 5.585.294, L 317, GAP to CII 29 September 1788.

  31 RGADA 5.85.1.557, L 256, CII to GAP 23 November 1787.

  32 RGADA 5.85.1.88, L 154, CII to GAP.

  CHAPTER 17: POTEMKIN’S PARADISE: THE CRIMEA

  1 This account of the Crimean Khanate and its annexation uses Baron de Tott’s Memoirs esp. vol 2; N. F. Dubrovin (ed) Prisoyedineniye Kryma k Rossii (reskripty, pisma, relatsii, doneseniya) vol 2 and N. F. Dubrovin (ed), Bumagi knyaza Grigoriya Alexandrovicha Potemkina-Tavricheskogo 1774–88 SBVIM vol 1 and 6; Alan W. Fisher’s two works The Crimean Tartars and The Russian Annexation of the Crimea. Also Alexander, CtG pp 246–55, and Madariaga, Russia pp 386–91.

  2 Fisher, Crimean Tartars, pp 7–69.

  3 De Tott, Memoirs vol 2 p 98. Fisher, Russian Annexation pp 6–21.

  4 SIRIO 8.227, CII to Voltaire.

  5 Fisher, Russian Annexation p 95.

  6 Among the Christians from the Crimea, there were Greeks and Armenians. The Greeks were settled in Taganrog and Mariupol, alongside ‘Albanese’ who had fought for the Russians in the First Turkish War. There were huge problems and the Russians, particularly GAP, must take the blame for the shambles that followed. There were complaints and near mutinies. The Archbishops Voulgaris and Theotokis acted as the Greeks’ spokesmen to GAP, who sorted out the problems and arranged benefits and favoured status. He learned from this first experience of settlement and became involved in the smallest details during the 1780s. The Armenians received their own towns, Gregoripol and Nakhichevan, and many also settled in Astrakhan, where GAP appointed Joseph Argutinsky as their archbishop. See Chapters 18 and 19. See also Bruess pp 122–7, RGADA 16.689.2.1.29 for GAP granting Taganrog benefits. RGADA 5.85.1.35, L 151, GAP to CII. He was also sending orders to I. A. Hannibal in Kherson to prepare in case of war: ZOOID 11: pp 324–6, N. N. Murzakevich, The materials for a history of the principal town of a province – Kherson GAP to I. A. Hannibal 11 August 1782.

  7 RGADA 5.85.1.122, L 152, CII to GAP 19 September 1782.

  8 RGADA 5.85.2.15, L 152, CII to GAP 30 September 1782.

  9 RGADA 5.85.1.88, L 154, CII to GAP.

  10 RGADA 5.85.1.126, L 154, CII to GAP 18 October 1782.

  11 Dubrovin, Prisoyedineniye Kryma vol 2 pp 98, 318–19, 322, 550, 558, 752–3, Prince Prozorovsky to GAP; GAP to Prozorovsky
; Count P. A. Rumiantsev to GAP; General Alexander Suvorov to GAP. Charter to Greeks PSZ 21 May 1779 14879; Charter to the Armenians PSZ 14 November 1779 14942. ZOOID 2 (1848–50): 660. ZOOID 1: 197–204. IV (1860) pp 359–62. Fisher, Russian Annexation pp 131–4. Marc Raeff, ‘The Style of Russia’s Imperial Policy and Prince Potemkin’ pp 10–11.

  12 Harris p 483, H to Lord Grantham 8/19 November 1782.

  13 RGADA 11.893.6 Prince de Ligne to GAP 23 May 1787?, unpublished. See also Semple in Dictionary of National Biography (1903).

  14 Harris p 372, H to Viscount Stormont 25 June/6 July 1781.

  15 Harris p 481, H to Grantham 4/15 November 1782. SIRIO 23 (1878): 274–5, CII to Baron F. M. Grimm 20 April 1783.

  16 AVPRI 5.5/1.591.1.106, L 154, GAP to CII.

  17 Harris p 498, H to Grantham 20/31 January 1783. PRO FO Secretary of State: State Papers, Foreign, cyphers SP 65/8 no 47, H to Grantham 2/13 December 1782, quoted in Isabel de Madariaga, ‘The Secret Austro-Russian Treaty’ p 135.

  18 Catherine II’s rescripts to GAP on the Crimea: RGADA 5.85.3.158–60, 14 December 1782. RGADA 5.85.165, 14 January 1783. RGADA 5.85.3.167–9, 7 February 1783. RGADA 5.85.3.175–80, 8 April 1783.

  19 Harris p 487, H to Grantham 6/17 December 1782.

  20 Harris p 492, H to Grantham 27 December 1782/7 January 1783.

  21 Harris pp 380–1, H to Stormont 14/25 July 1781. SIRIO 23 (1878): 431, CII to Grimm 30 November 1787. Harris p 275, H to Stormont 15/26 June, 6/17 October, 24 November/5 December, 13/24 December 1780. Madariaga, Russia pp 385–7. AKV 13: 75–83 A. A. Bezborodko to S. R. Vorontsov July 1785. PRO FO Secretary of State: State Papers, Foreign, cyphers SP106/67, William Fawkener to Lord Grenville 18 June 1791, unpublished. Harris pp 431–2, Charles James Fox to H and H to Fox 19/30 April 1782; pp 342–50, H to Stormont 13/24 March, 30 April/11 May 1781.

  22 RA (1888) 3 pp 364–7, On Clothes and Arms of Soldiers, GAP to CII. Masson vol 1 p 103. RGADA 5.85.3.81, CII ukase to GAP on transformation of Dragoon and Hussar regiments and irregular forces 15 December 1774. SBVIM vol 1 pp 74–88; pp 74–88; p 13, GAP to College of War 16 November 1774; p 38; p 10, GAP order to Kazan Cuirassier Regiment 27 October 1774. See also RS 7 pp 722–7; RA (1888) 2 pp 364–7; and RS (1908) 136 p 101. Senator Nikolai Yakovlevich Tregubov, Zapiski. A. Begunova, Way through the Centuries pp 86–7. These reforms were continued through the 1780s – see SIRIO 27 (1880): p 348, CII ukase to GAP 14 January 1785. It is worth noting that the British Army abolished this ‘fancy dress’ – powder, pomatum ex cetera – only in the nineteenth century, long after GAP had done so in Russia.

  23 Harris p 498, H to Grantham 20/31 January 1783.

  24 P. V. Zavadovsky, Pisma Zavadovskago k Rumiantsevu p 255, P. V. Zavadovsky to P. A. Rumiantsev.

  25 RGVIA 271.1.31.14, M. S. Potemkin to GAP ud.

  26 RGADA 5.85.1.440, L 162, CII to GAP. RGADA 1.1.43.61, L 163, GAP to CII 22 April 1783.

  27 RGADA 5.85.1.449, L 165, CII to GAP May 1783.

  28 M. S. Vorontsov’s Family Archive p 265 no 38, GAP order to General Count A. B. de Balmain 31 May 1783; p 265 no 40, GAP order to Lt-Gen A. S. Suvorov 10 June 1783; p 266 no 42 and 43 and 54, GAP orders to de Balmain 14 and 23 June 1783; p 277 no 77, GAP order to de Balmain; p 279 no 83, GAP order to Lt-Col Rakhmanov.

  29 AVPRI 123.123/2.71.127, GAP to de Balmain. RGADA 1.1/1.43.76–7. RGADA 5.85.1.450, CII to GAP. RGADA 1.1/1.43.78, GAP to CII. RGADA 5.85.1.456, CII to GAP. RGADA 5.85.1.459, CII to GAP. RGADA 1.1/1.43.80, L 165–73, GAP to CII. RGVIA 52.2.37.63, GAP to Bezborodko. Harris p 504, Grantham to H 22 February 1783.

  30 Louis XVI–Comte de Vergennes pp 131–4.

  31 A. S. Pishchevich, Zhizn A. S. Pishchevicha p 128. See also Duffy, Russia’s Military Way p 181. M. S. Vorontsov Family Archive, p 282 nos 91 and 93, GAP to Suvorov 11 and 13 September 1783; p 282 no 92, GAP to Khan Shagin Giray 13 September 1783.

  32 RGADA 5.85.1.461, CII to GAP. RGADA 5.85.1.504.

  33 A. Petrushevsky, Generalissimo Knyazi Suvorov vol 1 p 226.

  34 RGADA 11.1/1.43.86–7, L 175, GAP to CII 10 July 1783, Karasubazaar. RGADA 1.1/1.43.67–8, L 176, GAP to CII 16 July 1783, Karasubazaar. RGADA 1.1/1.43.69–71, L 179, GAP to CII 29 July 1783, Karasubazaar. RGADA 1.1/1.43.74–5, L 179, GAP to CII 29 July 1783, Karasubazaar.

  35 John Anthony Guldenstaedt, quoted in Coxe Travels vol 2 p 413.

  36 RGVIA 52.1/194.20.6.58 (Georgian text p 26), King Hercules/Heracles/Erakle to GAP 21 December 1782. RGVIA 52 1/194/20/6/34, King Hercules to GAP 31 December 1782. RGVIA 52.2.31, GAP to CII 5 August 1783. RGVIA 52.1.28.23, CII to GAP 23 August 1783. RGVIA 52.1.28.25, CII to GAP 30 September 1783. John F. Baddeley, Russian Conquest of the Caucasus pp 20–1. Ronald Grigor Suny, The Making of the Georgian Nation pp 58–9.

  37 RGADA 1.1/1.43.64, L 180, GAP to CII.

  38 As above in note 24. Also RGVIA 52.2.29.33, GAP to CII 13 October 1783 and RGVIA 52.2.29.56, GAP to CII 22 June 1784.

  39 RGADA 5.85.3.175–80, CII rescript to GAP on line of action after the Empress’s decision on annexation of Crimea with Taman and Kuban 8 April 1783.

  40 AKV 13: 53–4, Bezborodko to P. V. Bakunin 31 May 1784.

  41 RGADA 5.85.1.507, L 181, CII to GAP. On the ‘Armenian Project’, see Bruess pp 196–8.

  42 RGADA 5.85.513. SIRIO 27: 279, CII to GAP.

  43 RGADA 5.85.1.508. SIRIO 27: 276–80, CII to GAP.

  44 RGADA 5.85.4.1.524, CII to GAP.

  45 M. S. Vorontsov Family Archive, p 279 no 84, GAP order to Lt-Gen Suvorov 12 August 1783.

  46 RA (1905) 2 p 349, Yakov Bulgakov to GAP 1 October 1783, Constantinople. RGADA 5.85.4.1.521, CII to GAP. RGADA 5.85.4.1.521, L 185, CII to GAP 26 September 1783.

  47 JII–CII (Arneth) letter XCIV, JII to CII 12 November 1783, Vienna.

  48 RGADA 11.924.2. General I. A. Igelstrom to GAP February 1784, Karasubazaar, unpublished.

  49 S. N. Glinka, Zapiski pp 10–11.

  50 RGADA 5.85.4.1.524, L 186, CII to GAP. RGADA 1.1/1.43.4, L 187, GAP to CII 22 October 1783, Chernigov.

  51 AKV 13:45–6, Bezborodko to Simon Vorontsov 7 February 1784. For GAP fighting disease in the south (while also ordering new warships), see ZOOID 11:335, GAP to Colonel Gaks 16 July 1783; p 341, GAP to Gaks 6 October 1783; pp 342–4, GAP to Gaks 14, 22 October 1783 and GAP to M. V. Muromtsev 9 November 1783.

  52 Engelhardt 1997 pp 39–41.

  53 RA (1905) 2 p 352, GAP to Bulgakov. RA (1866) 11–12 p 1574.

  54 AKV 13: 47–8, Bezborodko to Simon Vorontsov 15 March 1784.

  CHAPTER 18: EMPEROR OF THE SOUTH

  1 Damas pp 89–90. This chapter owes a great debt to E. I. Druzhinina, Severnoye Prichonomorye 1775–1800, especially on population figures and settlement.

  2 Memoir of the Life of Prince Potemkin pp 66–7.

  3 Roger P. Bartlett, Human Capital: The Settlement of Foreigners in Russia 1762–1804 p 109. Ligne, Mélanges vol 24 p 181, Prince de Ligne to Prince Kaunitz 15 December 1788, Jassy.

  4 Wiegel 1 pp 29–30. Raeff, Imperial Manner pp 234–5. Raeff’s essay is highly perceptive on GAP’s style and talent as southern ruler.

  5 ZOOID 11: pp 506–8; E. A. Zagorovsky, Organization of the Administration in New Russia under Potemkin 1774–1 pp 1–33. Another major figure in his chancellery was Baron von Bühler, the brother of the chief minister of Saxony, who served as his senior foreign policy adviser in the late 1780s.

  6 RS (1876) 15 pp 33–8, July 1787. M. Garnovsky, Zapiski Mikhaila Garnovskago.

  7 Samoilov cols 1234–5.

  8 RGADA 5.85.1.38, L 73, CII to GAP. Manifesto on Liquidation of Zaporogian Sech. SBVIM vol 1 pp 46–52, 3 August 1775.

  9 AVPRI 2.2/8.20.55, L 99, GAP to CII 21 April 1776. Skalkovsky, New Sech part 3 A. pp 148, 158–63. Letters of Potemkin to Hetman P. I. Kalnikshevsky on 21 June 1774
and then threatening letter to same on 8 December 1774, quoted in Skalkovsky.

  10 SBVIM vol 1 pp 74–88, 20–1, proposal on Don 18 February 1775; pp 20–1, report to Senate 14 May 1775. Kolomenskoy pp 33–4. PSZ xx nos 14,251, 15 February 1775. PSZ xx no 14,464, 9 May 1775. SIRIO 27: 37.

  11 RGVIA 52.1.54.3.21–30, GAP correspondence with S. D. Efremov and wife Melaniya Karpovna.

  12 RGADA 5.85.1.68, L 110, GAP to CII and her reply, GAP to CII and again her reply. RGADA 5.85.1.68, L 110.

  13 SBVIM vol 6 p 54.

  14 SBVIM vol 1 pp 74–88, 36–7, GAP to General P. A. Tekeli 18 June 1775.

  15 William H. McNeill, Europe’s Steppe Frontier 1500–1800 pp 200–2. RGADA 5.85.1.464, L 81, CII to GAP. SBVIM vol 1 pp 65–7, 8 September 1775. Druzhenina pp 64–5.

  16 RGADA 1.1/1.54.83, L 125. RGADA 5.85.3.109. SIRIO 27: 50–1.

  17 RGADA 5.85.1.25, L 127, CII to GAP. Zavadovsky pp 23–4, Count P. V. Zavadovsky to Count P. A. Rumiantsev. The debate about the placing of Kherson: SBVIM p 110, CII ukase to GAP; p 112, GAP to CII 25 July 1778. RGVIA 143.1.6–7, ud, 1777. GAP costs the founding of Kherson at 460, 103 roubles.

  18 Samoilov cols 1215–18. Catherine also sent workers: RGADA 5.85.3.109, CII to GAP on workers for building Admiralty 31 May 1778. Reports of I. A. Hannibal to GAP: RGVIA 1.194.54.10.52, 11 November 1779. Also ZOOID 11: pp 324–6. Murzakevich, GAP to Hannibal 1 March 1781 and 11 August 1782. Druzhinina pp 64–83.

  19 Samoilov cols 1215–18.

  20 M. S. Bentham, Life of Brigadier-General Sir Samuel Bentham pp 17–18, 10 August 1780.

  21 Cornwall Archive, Antony CAD/50 Pole Carew Papers 1, 3, 4, 8, 9, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, unpublished.

  22 RGADA 11.900.1, Reginald Pole Carew to GAP 24 October 1781, Kherson, unpublished.

  23 Cornwall Archive, Antony CAD/50, Pole Carew Papers 25–7, unpublished.

  24 RGADA 11.900.1, Pole Carew to GAP 24 October 1781, Kherson, unpublished.

  25 M. Antoine, Essai Historique sur le commerce et la navigation de la Mer Noire p 112.

  26 ZOOID 8: 210, GAP to CII.

  27 ZOOID 13: 162, M. Antoine to GAP 11 January 1786.