River Kings
Page 30
Slavic people, 186, 201, 203, 224, 225–7, 230, 240, 241, 277; combined/mixed identities, 250–1, 252; the Drevlians, 247–9; Slavic language, 283; and word ‘slave,’ 231
Sleipnir (eight-legged horse), 169
smallpox (variola virus), 285–7
Smolensk, 227–8, 229
Snorri Sturluson, 77–8, 91, 167, 178, 198, 203, 240, 272–3
soapstone, 109
Soviet Union, 207, 223, 225, 226, 242–3
Spain, 79–80, 98, 232
spice trade, 292, 293
Spillings hoards (Gotland), 166–7
squirrel fur, 288
Sri Lanka (Ceylon), 174, 292, 293
St Bartholomew, 293
St Brice’s Day massacre (Oxford, 13 November 1002), 286–7
St Florent le Vieil, island of, 90
St Thomas, 293
St Wystan’s church, Repton, 16–17, 18, 29–30
Staffordshire hoard, 174
Stamford Bridge, Battle of (1066), 274
Stankevich, Y.V., 242–3
Staraya Ladoga (or Aldeigjuborg, Russia), 176, 185–7, 199, 200, 208, 240
Stavanger (western Norway), 232
Stiklestad, Battle of (1030), 274
Stolpe, Hjalmar, 116
Strabo (Roman historian), 293
strontium analysis, 23, 36–7, 40, 127, 136–7, 140, 159, 169, 170–1, 180, 181, 287; isotope ratios, 22
suttee, Hindu practice of, 245–6
Sutton Hoo ship burial, 173–4, 183
Svyatoslav (son of Olga), 248, 249, 250
Sweden: Christianisation of, 123; combined weight system with Islam, 64, 115; emergence of kingdom of, 111; Islamic dirhams in, 165, 175–6; narrative of eastward expansion, 4, 252; saga tales of attacks on eastern territories, 239–40; and Salme ship burials, 181–2; and smallpox virus, 287–8; Stockholm Museum, 103; trading routes to the east, 159–60, 165, 168, 172, 177–8; and Viking ethnicity, 126, 128
Tacitus, 165
tafl games, 85, 163
tar production, 234–5
Al-Tartushi, Ibrahim ibn Ya’qub, 120, 292, 293
taxation, 61, 112–13; in the east, 202, 203, 230; feorm (’food rent’), 91
textile manufacture, 139, 150, 156
Theodosius I, Byzantine Emperor, 267
Theodosius II, Byzantine Emperor, 266
Theophilus, Byzantine emperor, 197, 237, 238, 260–1, 275
Thetford, 16
Thietmar of Merseburg, 39
Thorberg Skafhog, 77–8
Thutmose III of Egypt, 267
Tigris, River, 282–3
Torksey, Lincolnshire, 83, 84, 86, 88–9, 97, 139, 234
tortoiseshell brooches, 152–3, 244
trade and commerce: Baltic trading sites as gateways to east, 172, 184, 185; Birka’s contacts with the east, 115, 116–18; commodities moved/traded in the east, 231–5; and control of rivers, 87, 88, 89, 230, 234; the east as place for entrepreneurs, 199–200, 230–4; ‘Eastern route’ of Wulfstan, 166; eastern trade routes from Baltic, 3–4, 5–6, 58–9, 109, 159–60, 165, 168, 172–4, 177–8, 195; emporia (proto-urban trading sites), 113–14, 120–1, 166, 294; imported eastern silver, 56–9, 61–2, 63–6, 67, 84–5, 115, 176–7, 178, 184, 199, 285; and increasing urbanism, 110–11, 113; Indian Ocean networks, 283, 293–4; luxury items as traded objects, 120, 173, 174, 232, 288; and military camps, 89, 90; movement of beads along trade routes, 106, 107–8, 109; and Portland attack, 95, 114; river routes of eastern Europe/central Asia, 185–7, 195, 202, 203–8, 213–17, 227–30, 241–2, 253, 260–1, 275, 278–9; Rus’-Byzantium treaties (tenth century), 239, 247, 264–5, 267–8, 274; stability in later eighth-century, 176; Staraya Ladoga as connector to east, 185–7; taxation, 61, 89, 91; trading towns, 108–10, 111, 114–15, 116–17, 120–1, 127, 185–7, 234, 241–3; weight-based economic system, 63, 64–5, 84, 108, 115, 116, 212–13; women’s involvement, 157–8, 247 see also coinage; currency and payment systems; Silk Roads
‘treasure’ items, 53–4
Trelleborg fortress, Denmark, 36–7, 39, 84
Trent, River, 66, 67, 79, 80–1, 82, 83, 86–8; junction with Humber and Ouse, 97
Truso (Poland), 166
Turkic peoples, 201–2
Turkish populations, 138, 201, 211
Twyford (near Repton), 81
Ukraine, 200, 219, 221; archaeological sites in, 219, 221, 228–30, 234, 235; Dnieper region, 159, 201, 228–30, 244–5, 247–52, 253; hryvnia (currency), 228–9; male–female double graves, 244–5; origin story in Primary Chronicle, 224–5, 227
Ulfr (brother-in-law of Cnut), 181
Unartoq (Greenland), 96
Uppsala, 114, 206; temple at Gamla Uppsala, 39; University of, 141
Ural mountains, 59, 200
urbanism, 110–11, 113
Utrecht, 32
Vale of York hoard, 57–9, 167
Valhalla, 20, 79, 148, 167, 169
the Valkyries, 148–9, 169
Varthema, Ludovico de, 296
Viking (replica of Gokstad ship), 86–7
‘Viking’ (term), 23*
Viking Age in England: ambitions of political conquest and settlement, 4, 16, 27; conquering of Mercia, 4; established narrative of, 4, 15–16; farming in England (from late 870s), 27; hybrid identities forged by settlers, 58; intensification of attacks in 990s, 289; lead gaming pieces, 85–6; little physical evidence of, 17, 54, 75, 83–4, 135; problems over genetic legacy, 26–7, 126; silk fragments, 269; St Brice’s Day massacre (Oxford, 13 November 1002), 286–7; use of extortion, 89; view of settlers as exclusively male, 152; Viking-Saxon conflicts in 920s, 58 see also Anglo-Saxon England; England
Viking Great Army: capture of York (866), 16, 58; female remains at Repton, 32, 135, 139–41, 143–4, 145, 150; first appearance in England (865), 16; hangers-on/camp followers, 66, 89, 139, 157; journey to Repton, 83, 86–7; lack of archaeological evidence of, 54–5, 84; and lead from Derbyshire, 116; and lead gaming pieces, 85–6; pattern of seasonal raiding, 16; and Ragnar Lothbrok story, 25; and Repton warrior (Grave 511), 24, 28–9; size of, 27; and slave trade, 47, 48; at Torksey, 83, 84, 86–7, 88–9, 97, 139, 234; travelling with children, 40, 41; truce at Wedmore (878), 122, 262; war dead at Repton charnel deposit, 1, 3, 31–3, 37, 40–1, 47, 139–41, 143–4, 145, 150, 216; and weight-based economic system, 64–5, 84, 212–13; winter camp at Repton, 1, 16–17, 29, 30–1; women with, 32, 41, 135, 139–41, 150
Viking society/culture: ability to adjust and to adapt, 240–1; accounts by Islamic travellers, 195–6, 198–9, 201, 202–3, 205, 209–17, 223, 224, 231, 246, 277; association with conquered elites, 18; Baghdad as south-east limit of travel, 284; class system, 48–9, 118–20, 159, 183–4, 216; direct connection between east and west, 252–3; dual economy system, 57, 60–1; enormous human cost of expansion, 288–9; ethnic background of Vikings, 124–5, 251–2; and human sacrifice, 38–9, 41, 196, 215–17, 245–7, 281; hunger for silver, 57, 61, 166–8, 200, 289; impact on Britain, 16, 26–7; land-based resources as crucial to success, 112–13; legal system, 111, 171, 273; markers of the exotic, 118–20, 123, 129–30, 150, 151, 285; neck rings, 58–9, 191, 193, 212, 213, 228–9, 244; patriarchy and male descent, 26; political structure of, 111; practice of polygyny, 155, 156–7; and ransom-taking, 51, 89, 183, 279–80, 281 see also Denmark; funerary and burial customs; migration patterns; military life/activities; Norway; Scandinavia; Sweden
Visby (Gotland), 168, 172
Vladimir (grandson of Igor), 273–4
Volga, River, 185–6, 187, 213–17, 228, 232, 275, 278–9
Volgograd, 272
Volkhov river, 185, 186, 187
Völuspá (Icelandic poem), 181
Vypovzyv (site north of Kyiv), 219, 221, 228–30, 231, 234, 235, 237, 238, 239, 242
Wagner, Richard, The Ring of the Nibelung, 148
walrus tusks, 233
Waterford, 269
weight standards, 59, 63–4, 84, 115, 212–13
Wessex, kingdom
of, 15*, 94, 95
whetstones, 109
William of Malmesbury, 293
William the Conqueror, 78–9, 274
Wirksworth, lead mines at, 116
Wisna (female warrior), 146
Wolin (on southern Baltic coast), 96, 166
women: agency and identity in Viking Age, 129, 130, 135–8, 139–48, 151–60, 215, 246–50; assumptions about gender roles, 32, 128–9, 135–8, 142, 150–2, 158–60, 247; bias towards male burials in archaeological record, 137, 154–6; bridewealth, 155, 156–7; burials at Repton, 32, 135, 139–41, 143–4, 145, 150; burials with weapons in Scandinavia, 141–4, 152, 236, 243, 247; of Celtic origin in Iceland, 51–2; exclusion from usual Viking Age story, 32, 128–9, 135–8, 140, 142, 152–3, 158–60; exotic objects in graves of, 106, 116–18, 119, 123, 151–2, 159, 183, 244; female migration, 128–9, 135–7, 138–9, 140–1, 150–3, 157, 158–60, 244; female warriors, 141–4, 145–50, 152, 157, 243, 247–50; fighters at Dorostopol (971), 148, 247; figurines of female warriors, 131, 133, 149; graves in Shestovitsa, 243, 244–5; with Great Army, 32, 41, 135, 139–41, 143–4, 145, 150; Hindu practice of suttee, 245–6; involvement in trade, 157–8, 247; lack of as driver for Viking attacks, 155; male–female double graves, 127, 244–5; and marriage alliances, 15; mitochondrial DNA, 25, 51, 130, 137, 138; and neck rings of silver, 58–9, 196, 212, 213, 244; Olga of Kyiv, 247–50; in Oseberg grave, 129–30, 144–5, 186, 247, 249–50; with power and status, 129–30, 144–5, 247–50; selective female infanticide theory, 154–5; slave girl sacrificed at funeral, 215–17, 246–7; textile manufacture by, 139, 150, 156; at Torksey, 139; and tortoiseshell brooches, 152–3, 244; travelling in saga literature, 153; as victims of slave trade, 49–50, 51–2, 215–17, 246–7, 280; volve (travelling woman of religion), 215; warriors in Norse mythology, 148–9, 169; wielding military power, 144–7, 249–50
wool production, 76, 77
Wulfstan (merchant), 166
Wystan (Wigstan), King of Mercia, 17–18
Yaroslav the Wise, 276
Yemen, 177
Ynglinga saga (Snorri Sturluson), 178, 198, 203, 272
Yngvarr, King of Sweden, 178, 182
York, 54, 88, 97, 113, 269; Athelstan’s recapture of, 58; Viking capture of (866), 16, 58
Zoe, Empress, 274
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
River Kings is the culmination of almost a decade of research, and I feel immensely grateful to everyone who supported me along the way. I have my lovely agent Tessa David to thank for turning this from a list of vague ideas into a real book (and Laurie Robertson for picking up in her absence), along with the rest of the brilliant team at Peters, Fraser and Dunlop who look after me so well. I’m very grateful to my editor Arabella Pike for taking a chance on me in the first place and for all her insightful help, as well as everyone else at HarperCollins, especially Iain Hunt and Jo Thompson, for everything they’ve done to turn this into something far better than my initial drafts. A big thank you to Richard Osgood, who drew the gorgeous illustrations for each chapter!
For the research that led to this book, I have a huge number of people to thank for their help and support (with apologies to anyone inadvertently left out!):
Martin Biddle for giving me access to continue the work on the Repton material and for so generously sharing his research, time and knowledge. Sadly, I never got to meet Birthe Kjølbye-Biddle, but I have benefited enormously from all her hard work. My PhD supervisor and collaborator Mark Horton, for all his help, encouragement and brilliant discussions, as well as to Henry Webber for all his work with us at Repton and Foremark. Martin Flowerdew, the vicar of Repton, for his help and friendship and for allowing us to repeatedly dig large holes in his lawn! All the local volunteers, especially Margaret and Andy Austen, and not least the several years’ worth of volunteer diggers giving up their time so generously – too many to list – but you are all amazing! Rob Davis for sharing his finds at Foremark with us.
Tom Horne, for reading through drafts, sharing research and answering all sorts of questions, Marianne Moen for brilliant discussions on Viking women and for reading drafts, Jane Kershaw for advice and sharing her excellent research, Jess Treacher for comments on an early chapter draft. Numerous other colleagues have helped either directly or indirectly by answering questions, letting me pick their brains, or supporting my work over the years; especially Judith Jesch, Howard Williams, Neil Price, Lesley Abrams, Tamar Hodos, Clare Downham and Lars Fehren-Schmitz.
William Pidzamecky for inviting me to collaborate on the Vypovzyv excavations and for answering all manner of questions, and to our excellent teams of diggers in 2018 and 2019. A huge thank you also to a long list of new colleagues in Ukraine, who have been so incredibly welcoming in sharing their sites, research and friendship.
I am very grateful to Bernard Cornwell for his encouragement and advice, and for so generously helping me fulfil my dream of following the carnelian bead to its origin. In Istanbul, Safyie for expertly guiding me around the city walls. In India, Anwar Sheikh Hussain for all his time and hospitality and for sharing knowledge of his unparalleled skills with carnelian, alongside his lovely family, as well as Pratap Bahi and our fearless driver Raju, and to Professor Kuldeep Bhan for connecting me with Anwar at short notice.
Finally, the biggest thank you to my wonderful family for their constant support and endless patience.
About the Author
Dr Cat Jarman is a bioarchaeologist and field archaeologist specialising in the Viking Age, Viking women and Rapa Nui. She uses forensic techniques like isotope analysis, radiocarbon dating and DNA analysis on human remains to untangle experiences of past people from broader historical narratives. She is a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries and has directed excavations at Viking Age sites in England and Ukraine. Dr Jarman is currently a senior advisor on academic content foe the new Museum of the Viking Age in Oslo. She has contributed to numerous TV documentaries as both an on-screen expert and historical consultant, including programmes for the BBC, Channel 4, History, Discovery and amore.
About the Publisher
Australia
HarperCollins Publishers Australia Pty. Ltd.
Level 13, 201 Elizabeth Street
Sydney, NSW 2000, Australia
www.harpercollins.com.au
Canada
HarperCollins Canada
Bay Adelaide Centre, East Tower
22 Adelaide Street West, 41st Floor
Toronto, Ontario M5H 4E3, Canada
www.harpercollins.ca
India
HarperCollins India
A 75, Sector 57
Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201 301, India
www.harpercollins.co.in
New Zealand
HarperCollins Publishers New Zealand
Unit D1, 63 Apollo Drive
Rosedale 0632
Auckland, New Zealand
www.harpercollins.co.nz
United Kingdom
HarperCollins Publishers Ltd.
1 London Bridge Street
London SE1 9GF, UK
www.harpercollins.co.uk
United States
HarperCollins Publishers Inc.
195 Broadway
New York, NY 10007
www.harpercollins.com