The Buddhist Cosmos

by Punnadhammo Mahathero

  There is a very great range of variation among human beings, and it is said that no two humans are ever exactly alike, even identical twins (AN-a 7:44). In the next sections, we shall consider some of the ways human beings vary from one another.

  3:1:3 INHABITANTS OF THE FOUR ISLAND-CONTINENTS

  Human beings (manussa) live on the land masses within the world-seas which lie between the central mountain rings and the edge of the cakkavāḷa. There are four main island-continents (mahādīpa), each with a grouping of smaller subsidiary islands. The different inhabitants of the four islands constitute the primary division of mankind.184

  About the physical characteristics of the people who live on these island-continents, the Pali sources say little. We are told that the humans who live on each continent have faces shaped like the landmass on which they dwell; thus those of us living here on Jambudīpa have roughly triangular faces with broad foreheads and sharp chins, those living on Aparagoyāna have round faces, the folk of Uttarakuru have square faces and those of Pubbavideha have faces that resemble the semi-circle of a half moon (Vism-mhṭ 7).

  Venturing beyond the Pali texts, we can glean a little more from the Abhidharmakośa, which gives the average height and life-span of each race. The inhabitants of Jambudīpa, our island-continent, vary between three and a half and four “elbows” in height. Taking an “elbow” to be about forty five centimetres that would mean a height ranging from about 157 cm. (5’ 2”) to 180 cm. (5’ 11”). The people of Pubbavideha are twice that size, eight elbows or 3.6 metres in height. That size is doubled again in Aparagoyāna to 16 elbows or 7.2 metres, and doubled again in Uttarakuru, where humans are said to be 32 elbows or nearly 14.5 metres high (AK 3:5. p. 469). However, these gigantic sizes are not supported in the Pali sources. The layman Jotika was married to a woman of Uttarakuru who had been brought to Jambudīpa by the devas (Dhp-a 26:33). It is hard to conceive of such a marriage were the wife indeed eight times taller than the husband! No mention is made of her being a giantess.

  In the Abhidhamma the span of human life is given as “unfixed”. This is primarily a reference to the humans of Jambudīpa where the life-span of humans waxes and wanes with the phases of cosmological history from a maximum of 84,000 years to a minimum of just ten years.185 According to the Abhidharmakośa the life-spans on the other continent-islands are fixed. People in Pubbavideha live for 250 years, those on Aparagoyāna for 500 years and those dwelling on Uttarakuru enjoy a life of 1000 years in length.186

  Regarding the character of the beings on the different island-continents, we are told that the humans of Uttarakuru surpass those of Jambudīpa and even the devas of Tāvatiṃsa in three respects:

  amama, apariggaha—Unselfishness, freedom from acquisitiveness.

  niyatāyuka—They have a fixed life-span. This means they are not subject to untimely death. The commentary further informs us that the humans of Uttarakuru always live for one thousand years and upon death always go to a devaloka. Premature death is of course common for the humans of Jambudīpa and may occur among the lower devas by, for example, death in battle with the asuras.

  visesaguṇa—The excellence of their qualities. The reading here is doubtful; the Sinhalese and Siamese recensions have visesabhuno which Bhikkhu Bodhi renders with “their living conditions are exceptional.”187

  On the other hand, the humans of Jambudīpa surpass those of Uttarakuru and the Tāvatiṃsa devas in the three qualities of;

  sūra—Heroism.

  satimant—Mindfulness. In the deva worlds there is only happiness and in niraya only misery and neither of these conditions is conducive to mindfulness; only among the humans of Jambudīpa is there a suitable mix of the two.

  idhabrahmacariyavāsa—Here it is possible to live the holy life. As the commentary says, only in Jambudīpa do Buddhas and paccekabuddhas arise, and only here is it possible to follow the eightfold path in fullness (AN-a 9:21).

  The Pali sources tell us almost nothing about the mode of life in Aparagoyāna and Pubbavideha, except that we know the people of the latter do not build houses but sleep out of doors (Th-a 20:1). Two passages describe in some detail the life of the Uttarakuru folk, however these are not entirely consistent. A long passage in the sub-commentary portrays the Uttarakuru people as living in a state of primitive simplicity and purity:

  The distinctive nature of the inhabitants of Uttarakuru, and the power of their merit, will now be described. Here and there throughout their land accumulations of leaves, branches and twigs make up peaked dwellings in the delightful trees, and these are arranged in a way suitable for human habitation. They dwell wherever they like, in one tree or another. The tops of these trees are always in flower. There are also ponds filled with red and white lotuses and water-lilies and other such plants, all wafting forth delightful scents continuously.

  Their bodies are tall and free of blemishes, perfect in height and girth, unconquered by old age, free of wrinkles, grey hair and other such faults. Their strength and vigour is not diminished as long as life lasts. They live without exertion; there is no agriculture or trade and the search for nutriment is without suffering. They possess neither male nor female slaves; no one is made to labour. There is no danger from heat or cold or flies and mosquitoes, reptiles or snakes. Just as in the morning during the last month of summer there is even heat and cold, so there all the time there is even heat and cold. There no one suffers from injury or annoyance.

  Without farming or cooking they enjoy sweet fragrant rice; the grains are pure, without powder or husk. Thus eating, they suffer no leprosy, boils, skin disease, consumption, wasting sickness, asthma, epilepsy or aging and so forth. Indeed no disease arises there at all. There no one is hump-backed or dwarfish or blind or crippled, lame or halt. No one is defective or deformed in any way.

  The women there are not too tall, not too short, not too lean, not too fat, not too dark, and not too pale. Their bodies are very beautiful. They have long fingers with brown finger-nails, firm breasts, thin waists and faces like the full moon. They have large eyes, soft bodies, shapely thighs188 and white teeth. They have deep navels, slender calves, long black hair and round bellies, neither too much nor too little (body) hair. Their female organs are warm, pretty and pleasant to the touch. They are delicate, kindly and pleasant in their speech and are adorned in various ways. The women always look as if they were sixteen years old, the men as if they were twenty-five. There, there is no attachment to wife or child. This is the nature of that place.

  Once each week women and men live together in sensual enjoyment. Afterward, with passions extinguished, they go their own ways. There it is not like here; there is no suffering caused by conception, pregnancy or child-birth. From its red mantle189 the child emerges comfortably from the mother’s womb like a golden statue, not smeared with phlegm and so forth. This is the nature of that place. The mother having given birth to a son or a daughter makes a place for them beside the road and without concern goes wherever she likes. There the baby lies and is seen by men and women passersby who offer it a finger. By the power of their kamma, the finger produces milk and it is this which the baby drinks. In this way they grow, and in a few days gain strength. Then the girls go among the women and the boys among the men.

  The wish-fulfilling trees190 there provide clothes and ornaments. Cloth hangs down from the tree; variously coloured, fine and delicate to the touch. Ornaments, many and various, hang down from the trees; resplendent with shining rays, encircled with many jewels, fashioned in many ways such as “garland work”, “creeper work” or “wall work.”191 They are made to adorn the head, the neck, the hands, the feet and the hips. These golden ornaments hang down from the wish-fulfilling tree. There various kinds of musical instruments hang down from the tree; lutes, drums, cymbals, conches, flutes and so forth.192 There are also many fruits the size of water pots with sweet taste. Whoever eats them doesn’t suffer from hunger or thirst for a week.

  The river there has very pure water; it
s banks are beautiful and delightful, sandy and free of mud. The water is neither too cold nor too warm and is covered with water flowers whose fragrance is wafting about all the time. There, there are no thorny hedges, rough plants or creepers. There flourish only flowers and fruits free of thorns. Sandalwood and ironwood trees freely trickle forth syrup. Those wishing to bathe leave their clothes on the river bank, descend into the water and bathe. They go up or down stream or cross to the other side and take whatever clothes they find there. There is no idea of “This is mine, this is another’s.” There is on account of that no quarrelling or dissension.

  Every seven days there is enjoyment of sexual intercourse, and from there they go away free of lust. Wherever they desire to sleep, there in the trees is found a bed. In death, these beings see neither sorrow nor joy. At that time, they put aside their adornments, and at the instant of death a bird carries the corpse away to another island. They have no cemeteries or charnel grounds. And after death they do not go to niraya or to the petaloka or to an animal birth. By the natural power of the five precepts, (see Vism 1:41) they always arise in the devaloka. They always live a full thousand years and by nature they keep all the precepts. (AN-ṭ 9:21)

  The other source, the Āṭānāṭiya Sutta, Dīgha Nikāya Sutta 32, is a long poem full of mythological elements, many of them obscure. One section concerns Uttarakuru and it begins with a picture not unlike that of the previous text:

  There is delightful Kuru, beautiful Mahāneru.193

  There people live free of desire, free of grasping.

  (Commentary) There is no sense of ownership of clothing, goods, food or drink. There is no taking of women as wives. “This is my wife” is not known.

  (Subcommentary) When a son sees his mother, milk drips from her breast and by this sign he knows her.

  (This last detail is presumably meant to prevent inadvertent acts of incest).

  They do not sow seeds, nor pull the plough.

  The people eat rice without farming or cooking.

  The pure fragrant rice grains are without chaff or husk.

  Cooked on magic stones (tuṇḍikīra), thus they enjoy their food.

  (Commentary)—The pot is cooked over a fire without smoke or embers by means of the so-called “Jotika Stones”194 (jotikapāsāṇā). Three of these stones are placed together and the pot is put on top. The stones produce heat to cook the rice.

  The poem then changes tone completely when it introduces Vessavaṇa as king of Uttarakuru. This being is a great yakkha lord, and the Great King of the North. We will have more to say about him in the chapter on the Cātumahārājika Devas (§ 3:5,7).

  Having made oxen pull carriages (ekakhuraṃ),195 they travel about in all directions.

  Having made beasts (pasuṃ) pull carriages they travel about in all directions.

  (Commentary)—Thus mounted, Vessavaṇa’s servant yakkhas travel about the land.

  Using women as vehicles they travel about in all directions.

  (Commentary)—Pregnant women are mostly used as vehicles. They sit on their backs to travel. They are truly made to endure this back-bending burden. Other women are yoked to carts.

  Using men as vehicles they travel about in all directions.

  (Commentary)—Having seized men, they yoke them to carts. They are unable to seize those of right view; it is mostly barbarian border folk (paccantimamilakkhuvāsika) that they take. Once one of these country folk lay down near a certain elder and slept. The elder asked, “Do you sleep a lot, layman?” “Yes, bhante, the slaves of Vessavaṇa are tired every night.”

  This commentarial explanation would imply two things. First, the slaves are taken from Jambudīpa which is where the “barbarians” live, and second, they are not taken by brute force but enslaved by magical means, thus possessing right view serves as a protection.

  Using girls as vehicles they travel about in all directions.

  Using boys as vehicles they travel about in all directions.

  (Commentary)—The boys and girls are yoked to chariots.

  Mounted in such vehicles they ride about in every direction on the errands of their king.

  Elephants, horses, divine carriages (dibbaṃ yānaṃ), palaces and litters are prepared for the use of their glorious great king.

  (Commentary)—These vehicles are equipped with noble seats and sleeping places. They arise through the magical power (ānubhāvasampanna) of the king.

  There too are cities, well built in the air.

  (Commentary)—Well created by the king, the cities come to be.

  (names of cities …)

  Āṭānāṭā, Kusināṭā, Parakusināṭā,

  Nāṭasuriyā, Parakusiṭanāṭā.

  Kasivanto lies to the north.

  Janoghamaparena,

  Navanavatiya and Ambarāmbaravatiya.

  A royal city is called Āḷakamandā.

  But the royal city of their great king Kuvera is called Visāṇā.

  From this Great King Kuvera took the name Vessavaṇa.

  (Commentary)—He was once a brahmin named Kuvera, living before the Buddha. He owned seven sugar-cane fields and made much merit from their proceeds. Reborn as a cātumahārājika deva, he was later made king in Visāṇa and took that name.

  The emissaries of the king are now made known;

  Tatolā, Tattalā, Tatotalā,

  Ojasi, Tejasi, Tatojasī, Sūro, Rājā, Ariṭṭho, and Nemi.

  (Commentary)—There are also Sūrorājā and Ariṭṭhanemi. Each of these investigates and advises on various matters. They are known as the twelve yakkharaṭṭhikā (“yakkha officials”) and they pass their reports on to the twelve yakkhadovārikā (“yakkha door-keepers”) who pass them on to the Great King.196

  Thus, one image of Uttarakuru is that of an earthly paradise where the people live in a state of primitive purity. Onto that is grafted another image, that of a realm where powerful yakkhas live in aerial cities and enslave human beings to use as draught animals. What are we to make of these two discordant elements? It may be that the human Uttarakuru folk are protected and guided in their innocence by the yakkhas, who only enslave “barbarians” from Jambudīpa.

  On the other hand, to take a more critical view, we may have here muddled traces of two ancient and separate traditions. The idea of Uttarakuru is older than Buddhism. In his Epic Mythology which draws on the Vedas and Puranas, Hopkins says this about Uttarakuru:

  The Uttara Kurus are another class of Northern saints and seers, living beyond the gate barred by the head of the monster Mahisa, south of Nila and on the flank of Meru. They live ten thousand and ten hundred years and are buried by birds. They have heavenly felicity in food and freedom; their clothes are grown by trees; their women are not restrained. They associate with spirits born of water and fire and mountain, and where they live, Indra “rains wishes” and jealousy is unknown.197

  3:1:4 GENDER

  Human beings may be classified in different ways; by gender, caste and nationality for instance.

  The inhabitants of the kāmabhūmi, the “sense desire realm” which includes humans, animals and devas, as well as the inhabitants of niraya and the petas, are as a rule divided into two genders, male and female. Human beings are no exception. The gender of the individual is determined by the possession of either the femininity or masculinity faculties (itthindriyaṃ or purisindriyaṃ).

  The femininity faculty has the female sex as its characteristic. Its function is to show that ‘this is a female’. It is manifested as the reason for the mark, sign, work and ways of the female.

  The masculinity faculty has the male sex as its characteristic. Its function is to show that ‘this is a male’. It is manifested as the reason for the mark, sign, work and ways of the male. (Vism 14:57–58)

  The commentary to the Dhammasangaṇi of the Abhidhamma has a long passage discussing the femininity and masculinity faculties:

  It is on account of the femininity faculty that the female organ (itthiliṅga)
and so on exist … The hands, feet, neck and breast of a woman are not formed like those of a man. In a woman, the lower body is smooth (visado), the upper body is shaped (avisado). The hands, feet and face are all small. The marks by which she may be known are as follows: the flesh of her breasts is rounded (avisado), on her face there grows no beard or whiskers. The way a woman binds her hair and wears her clothes is not like that of a man. Their behaviour is charming. When females are young girls they play with dolls (cittadhītalikāya, lit. “images of little daughters”) and with little mortars and pestles. They make strings of clay beads.

  A woman’s way of walking, standing, lying down, sitting, eating and chewing are graceful (avisado). If a man is seen going about like this he is said to be walking etc. like a woman.

  The state of womanhood (itthattaṃ) and the womanly nature (itthibhāva) both mean the same thing. Born of kamma, it originates at the time of conception (or “rebirth-linking” paṭisandhi). Just as a seed is the cause of the tree branches which rise to the sky, so the femininity faculty is the cause of the female organ and so forth. The femininity faculty is not perceivable by the eye or by the mind but the female organ and so forth is perceivable …

  The male organ and so forth should be considered the opposite of the female. A man’s hands, feet, neck, breast and so forth are not shaped like those of woman. His upper body is smooth (visado), his lower body is lumpy (avisado). His hands and feet are large, his face is large. The flesh of his breast is smooth (visado) and he grows a beard and whiskers. The manner in which he binds his hair and wears his clothes is not like that of a woman. When a young boy, he plays with toy chariots and ploughs, he plays at digging channels in the sand. His way of behaviour is straight-forward (visado). If a woman is seen acting in this way, it is said she is acting like a man198.