The Buddhist Cosmos

by Punnadhammo Mahathero

These devas do not create their own sense pleasures, but wield a certain power over the devas below them who manifest the desired objects. “Whatever occurs to their mind, the others over whom they wield power, know this and create that object” (Vibh-a 18:6). These others must be the Nimmānarati Devas, who are the only ones with the power to create desired objects at will.

  The Paranimmitavasavatti Devas enjoy the creations of others. The others, having known their mind, create whatever objects of enjoyment they desire. They wield power there. How do the others know their mind? It is in the nature of their service (pakatisevanavasena). Just as a skilful cook knows what the king wants to eat, and so makes lots of it, just so, they know what the Paranimmitavasavatti Devas want. Thus, naturally (pakatiyā) having known what sense objects give pleasure, just these they create. (DN-a 33)

  As the Paranimmitavasavatti Devas occupy the highest position in the kāmabhūmi (“plane of sense desire”) their sense pleasures are the most exquisite and refined. Thus, of all beings who take physical nutriment, their food is the most subtle (MN-a 9). The Abhidharmakośa informs us that they make love simply by gazing into one another’s eyes (AK 3: 5, Eng. p. 465). We have seen how this text describes the refinement of sexuality as we move up through the devalokas. It should be noted, however, that this is a Sarvāstivādin source.674 The Theravāda commentaries were aware of this doctrine but rejected it. The passage quoted just above goes on to say:

  Those over whom they wield power serve them with sexual intercourse (methunaṃ sevanti). But some elders say: “by the mere holding of hands, by a mere look, by mere smiling they complete the act of pleasure.” In the commentary (aṭṭhakathā, meaning the old Sinhala commentary on which Buddhaghosa’s work was based) this is rejected: “But this is not so Since it is not possible to accomplish the act of sex without bodily touching. Since sensual pleasure is natural in the sense-desire realm too”. (DN-a 33)

  We can only speculate why the Theravāda commentators rejected this description of the increasing refinement of sexuality in the deva worlds, a concept that is intuitively appealing and consistent with what we otherwise know about those realms. It may be based on the Abhidhamma teaching that the tactile sense base is the only one which can produce pleasurable feeling directly.675 If the Pali commentarial view is correct, it raises another interesting speculation: are the Nimmānarati Devas mostly female, and the Paranimmitavasavatti Devas entirely or mostly male? There is little enough to go on here, but other than their king, Sunimmita, the only Nimmānarati devas mentioned in the sources are female, and we have seen that this is the rebirth destination of dutiful wives.676 When considering these sorts of issues raised by the texts, it should not be forgotten that the ancient Indians who produced them were the products of a patriarchal culture and that their assumptions about appropriate gender roles were very different from ours.

  CONCLUSION

  We have now reached the summit of the plane of sense-desire. In the realm below this one, the beings are able to create any desired object by a simple act of will. This might seem to be the furthest limit to which the fulfillment of sense-desire can be taken, but there is something still better. The Paranimmitavasavatti Devas do not even have to be bothered with performing an act of will to satisfy their sensuality. There is an odd paradox here. From one perspective, we can visualize them as all-powerful overlords bending others to their will, as their name implies. However, they can just as easily be seen as completely passive consumers of sense objects: “having known what they want, just these objects which give pleasure they (the servant devas) create.” In the whole of the sense-desire realm, beings strive and suffer to attain their desired objects. Here we see that the final goal, the peak experience of sensuality, is an utterly futile existence of supine luxury.

  3:5:33 MĀRA

  There is one inhabitant of the Paranimmitavasavatti realm who has a very special significance in the cosmology. This is Māra: the tempter, tormentor and adversary of those who are following the path of liberation. Although the Paranimmitavasavatti realm is ruled by the devarāja Vasavatti, Māra does not submit to his authority, but together with his own retinue rules one region of this realm “like a rebel prince in a frontier province” (MN-a 1). Māra is a very powerful deity; he is called “foremost of sovereigns” (ādhipateyya, lit. “over-lord”) (AN 4:15) and his power extends over the whole sensual-desire plane.

  Sense perceptions and sense pleasures are said to be “Māra’s domain, Māra’s sphere, Māra’s bait and Māra’s pasture” (MN 106). He makes it his mission to prevent any being escaping from this realm which he sees as his. The name Māra derives from maraṇa, “death.”677 “Those beings who desire to transcend his domain, he kills (māreti) if he can, if he cannot then he wishes them dead (maraṇaṃ), hence he is called Māra” (Sn-a 1:2). A slightly different explanation of his name is given elsewhere: “he incites beings to their harm and so causes their death” (Ud-a 6:1). The importance of Māra in the cosmological scheme is shown by a passage in the Milindapañha which lists eight things which are “mighty and unique” (mahanto, so eko yeva) in the world; Māra is included in the exalted company of the Buddha, the earth, the sea, Mt Sineru, space, Sakka and Mahābrahma.678 Māra’s power extends to some degree even beyond his special domain of the sense-desire realm. It is said that the five aggregates (khandha) are subject to him, (SN 23:1) and even that his domain extends to the whole of saṃsāra (AN-a 8:29). Either of these formulations would be the equivalent of all conditioned existence, including also those realms beyond the plane of sense-desire. Indeed, we shall see below incidents of Māra’s sway extending into the world of the brahmās who exist in a higher plane than the sensual devas including Māra himself.

  Māra is sometimes used as a metaphor or synedoche, and the Dīgha Commentary distinguishes between four “Māras”: Māra as the aggregates of body-mind (khandhamāra), Māra as death (maccumāra), Māra as the defilements (kilesamāra) and Māra the deva (devaputtamār.).679 This last is the unique entity, the powerful deva named Māra. It is this being who is the subject of this chapter.

  Something of Māra’s character can be gleaned by looking at his various epithets:

  Pāpimā—“The Evil One” because he is “exceedingly wicked.”

  Kaṇha—“The Black One” because he is “endowed with dark kamma.”

  Antaka—“The End-Maker” because he seeks to “make an end of those endowed with the virtues beginning with dispassion.”

  Namuci—“No Release” because “without spiritual practice beings are not set free” from his power.

  Pamattabandhū—“Kinsman of the Negligent” so-called either because “the heedless bind (bandhati) themselves in his snares, or because they are reckoned as his kinfolk (bandhū).”680

  As with Sakka and other important individuals in these realms, the designation Māra should be considered as an office rather than a personal name. Māra is, like all other beings, mortal and when he dies a new Māra arises to take his place.681

  3:5:34 MĀRA AND THE BUDDHA I—BEFORE FULL AWAKENING

  The biggest threat to Māra’s dominion is the arising of a Buddha in the world. Not only is a Buddha fully released from Māra’s power, but he teaches countless others the path to liberation. Māra therefore did everything in his power to prevent Siddhattha Gotama from attaining Buddhahood, and when he failed in that, to obstruct the progress of his teaching. The Pali texts recount many episodes of Māra confronting the Buddha. The first in chronological order occurred when the Prince Siddhattha had made the decision to renounce the worldly life and was leaving through the city-gate mounted on his loyal horse Kanthaka:

  At that moment, Māra thought, “I will turn the Bodhisatta back.” He came to that place and standing in the air said, “Dear sir, do not depart. Seven days from now the Wheel-Treasure will manifest for you. You will make an empire over the four great continents and their retinue of two thousand islands. Remain here, dear sir.”

  “Who are you?” />
  “I am Vasavatti.”

  “Māra, I already know that the Wheel-Treasure will manifest for me. Empire is not my purpose. I will become a Buddha and make the ten thousand fold world-system resound.”

  Māra thought, “From this day onward, whenever he has a mind moment of lust or ill-will or cruelty, I will know it.” Waiting for a chance, like a shadow he followed the Bodhisatta without turning aside.

  But the Bodhisatta, having cast aside the possession of a Wheel-Turner’s empire like a piece of spittle left the city with great dignity. (Jāt-nid 2)

  The status of a Wheel-Turning Monarch (cakkavatti) is the supreme worldly achievement and the rejection of this signifies the Bodhisatta’s renunciation of the whole of saṃsāra.682 Therefore, the threat to Māra’s dominion was very great and he made the determination to keep his eye on this one. One detail of interest here is that Māra falsely identifies himself as Vasavatti, but this does not fool Prince Siddhattha. We shall see other examples below of Māra appearing in false guise.683

  We next hear of Māra when the Bodhisatta was sitting by the banks of the Nerañjara River. Because of this location, we can infer that it was near the end of the six year period of the Bodhisatta’s practice of austerities, shortly before the final effort under the Bodhi Tree. Due to his extreme fasting, the Bodhisatta was at this time very emaciated. Verses in the Padhāna Sutta tell us how Māra attempted once again to divert the Bodhisatta from his path:

  I was striving by the Nerañjara River

  Endeavouring with meditation, to attain the release from bonds.

  Namuci speaking in a compassionate voice approached me:

  “You are emaciated, of bad colour. You are near death.

  There are in you one thousand parts of death to a single one of life.

  Life is better, sir. Live and make merit.

  Walk the holy life, perform the fire sacrifice!

  Much merit will be heaped up, why perform this striving?

  Hard is the road of striving, hard to perform, hard to achieve.”

  These verses were spoken by Māra, standing near the Buddha.

  When Māra had spoken thus, the Blessed One said:

  “Pamattabandhu, Pāpima, with a purpose you have come here.

  I have not the slightest need for merit.

  To those who have the goal of merit, to them Māra is worthy to speak.

  There is faith, energy and wisdom found in me.

  Indeed I am resolute, why do you ask about life?

  The streams and rivers, this wind dries up.

  Why should not my blood dry up when I am striving?

  The blood dries up, the phlegm and bile wither away.

  In the wasting of the flesh, the mind is better purified.

  More mindfulness and wisdom and samādhi are established.

  This mind is not seeking sense pleasure, behold a purified being.

  Sensuality is your first army, the second is discontent I say.

  The third is hunger and thirst, the fourth is called desire.

  The fifth is sloth-and-torpor, the sixth is called cowardice.

  The seventh is doubt, the eighth is hypocrisy and callousness.

  Gain, fame and honour, and glory wrongly obtained,

  Having high regard for oneself, disparaging others

  These are your armies Namuci, the striking force of Kaṇha,

  Which no coward can defeat. To conquer them is to find bliss.

  I hold my life of as little account as this blade of muñja grass.

  It is better to die in battle than to live defeated.

  Some samaṇas and brahmins are submerged, they do not see.

  That path they do not know, by which the good go.

  I see the army all around, and Māra and his mount.

  I go forth to battle, I will not be moved from my place.

  That army which the world with its devas cannot overcome,

  That by wisdom I shall break, like an unfired bowl with a stone.

  Having mastered thought, with mindfulness well established,

  I shall wander from country to country, training many disciples.

  These sent forth, diligent followers of my teaching,

  Free of desire they shall go, and wherever gone they shall not sorrow.” (Sn 3:2)

  This simple text became the kernel of much embellishment in later literature as the story of the Buddha’s encounter with Māra by the Nerañjara was fleshed out with many additional details.684 The most elaborate version found in the Pali commentaries is from the introduction to the Jātaka tales. It is worth translating this passage in full. After the brief sutta quoted above, this Jātaka version is the next retelling of an episode which became central to the stories of both Māra and the Buddha. It is also of significance because it is from an early source considered authoritative by the Theravāda tradition:

  The Bodhisatta, putting his back to the Bodhi Tree and his face to the east, made the firm resolve:

  “Let skin and sinews and bones waste away,

  Let the flesh and blood of the body dry up without remainder.

  Until I have reached total awakening I will be bound to this seat.”

  He sat down in the unconquerable posture, not to be moved by a hundred thunderbolts.

  At that time the devaputta Māra thought, “Prince Siddhattha wants to go beyond my power, I will not let him go now.” He went to the Māra-host (mārabala) and informed them of this matter. Shouting the praise of Māra, the Māra-host went forth. The Māra-army (mārasena) of Māra stretched twelve yojana before him, to left and right twelve yojana.

  Behind him it reached to the cakkavāla wall (i.e to the edge of the world-system), above him nine yojana. The sound of their shouting like the earth beginning to split open was heard for a thousand yojana. Then Māra mounted on his elephant Girimekhala, one hundred and fifty yojana high, created one thousand arms and took up various weapons. As for the rest of Māra’s company, no two persons took up the same weapon. Assuming various colours and various faces, they came to overpower the Great Being.

  At that time, the devas of the ten-thousand-fold world-system stood speaking the praise of the Great Being. Devarājā Sakka stood blowing his conch Vijayuttara. Now this conch is one hundred and twenty hattha (i.e. cubits) long. Once this conch is blown, the sound lasts for four months until it becomes silent. The nāgarājā Mahākāla stood speaking praise of the Bodhisatta in more than one hundred stanzas. Mahābrahmā stood bearing the white parasol. But as the Māra-host approached the Bodhimaṇḍa (“the site of awakening”) not one of these could hold his place. Coming face to face they fled away. The black Nāga king dived into the earth and went to his five-hundred yojana nāga realm Mañjerika, and sat there with both hands covering his face. Sakka putting the Vijayuttara conch on his back went and stood at the edge of the world-system. Mahābrahmā having placed the white parasol at the summit of the world-system fled to the Brahmaloka. Not one deva was able to remain; the Great Being sat all alone.

  Māra said to his company, “There is no other person like this Siddhattha son of Suddhodana. We cannot give battle from the front, we shall attack from the rear.” The Great Being looked around on three sides and saw that all the devas had fled leaving the place empty. And furthermore he saw the Māra-army spread over the northern side. “I am one person alone and against me alone this great effort of power is being made. In this place there is no mother or father or brother or any other relative. But the ten pāramis (qualities of spiritual perfection developed through many life-times) have for a long time been like my paid retainers. The pāramis shall be my sword and my shield, with which I shall defeat this host .” So he sat, contemplating the pāramis.

  Then said Māra, “I shall make even Siddhattha run away,” and raised a whirlwind. in an instant, a wind rose up from the four directions. Having split mountain-tops of half a yojana, one yojana, two yojana, three yojana in size, having uprooted forests of plants and trees, all around villages a
nd towns were smashed to bits. But by the merit of the Great Man, its power was destroyed. Having reached the Bodhisatta, it was unable to flutter so much as the hem of his robe. Then said Māra, “By submerging him with water I will slay him.” And he produced a great deluge of rain. By his power, having caused hundreds and thousands of clouds to come together like a roof, they poured forth rain. By the power of the rain the earth was split and the waters reached to the tops of the trees. But it was not able to moisten the robe of the Great Being by so much as the measure of a dew-drop. Then he raised a rain of stones. Very great mountain tops smoking and blazing fell from the sky. But upon reaching the Bodhisatta they became garlands of deva-flowers. Then he produced a rain of weapons. One-edged and two-edged swords and arrows smoking and blazing fell from the sky. These too, falling upon the Bodhisatta became deva-flowers Then he raised a rain of charcoal. Charcoal embers the colour of kiṃsuka flowers (i.e. bright red) fell from the sky. At the feet of the Bodhisatta they became a sprinkling of deva-flowers. Then he raised a rain of hot ash. Very hot, the colour of fire the ash fell from the sky. There fell at the Bodhisatta’s feet deva-sandalwood powder. Then he raised a rain of sand. Exceedingly fine sand smoking and blazing fell from the sky. At the Bodhisatta’s feet fell deva-flowers. Then he raised a rain of mud. Mud smoking and blazing fell from the sky. At the Bodhisatta’s feet fell deva-ointment (dibbavilepana). Then thinking, “By terror I will make Siddhattha flee” he raised a darkness. As if endowed with four limbs was the great darkness Having reached the Bodhisatta the darkness was dispelled as if by the brightness of the sun.

  Thus Māra by these nine assaults, the whirlwind etc. was unable to make the Bodhisatta run away. Māra cried out to his troops, “Why do you stand there, lackeys!685 Seize this prince Siddhattha, kill him, make him run away!” Having addressed his company, seated on the back of his elephant Girimekhala, he took up his wheel-weapon, the Cakkāvudha, and approached the Bodhisatta. “Siddhattha rise up from that seat. You have not won it (pāpuṇāti), it is won by me.” he said. The Great Being heard this and said the following. “Māra, by you the ten pāramis were not perfected, neither the lesser pāramis, nor the higher pāramis. Not given up by you were the five great renunciations. Neither did you strive for the sake of knowledge, nor for the sake of the world. Not perfected by you was the way of awakening. By me all these were completed, thus not by you but by me is this seat won.”