by Tim Flannery
17 Mennecart, B. et al, ‘A New Late Agenian (MN2a, Early Miocene) Fossil Assemblage from Wallenreid, (Molasse Basin, Canton Fribourg, Switzerland)’, Palaeontologische Zeitschrift, Vol. 90, pp. 101–23, 2015.
Kuch, U. et al, ‘Snake Fangs from the Lower Miocene of Germany: Evolutionary Stability of Perfect Weapons’, Naturwissenschaften, Vol. 93, pp. 84–87, 2006.
18 Evans, S. E. and Klembara, J., ‘A Choristeran Reptile (reptilian:Diapsida) from the Lower Miocene of Northwest Bohemia (Czech Republic)’, Journal of Vertebrate Palaeontology, Vol. 25, pp. 171–84, 2005.
CHAPTER 17
1 Darwin, C., The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, John Murray, London, 1871.
2 Begun, D., The Real Planet of the Apes: A New Story of Human Origins. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2015.
3 Ibid.
4 Ibid.
5 Stevens, N. J., ‘Palaeontological Evidence for an Oligocene Divergence between Old World Monkeys and Apes’, Nature, Vol. 497, pp. 611–14, 2013.
6 Begun, D., The Real Planet of the Apes: A New Story of Human Origins, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2015.
7 Ibid.
CHAPTER 18
1 Ibid.
2 Ibid.
3 Bernor, R. L., ‘Recent Advances on Multidisciplinary Research at Rudabábanya, Late Miocene (MN9), Hungary’, Palaeontolographica Italica, Vol. 89, pp. 3–36, 2002.
4 Begun, D., The Real Planet of the Apes: A New Story of Human Origins. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2015.
5 Ibid.
6 Fuss, J. et al, ‘Potential Hominin Affinities of Graecopithecus from the Late Miocene of Europe’, PLOS ONE, Vol. 12, No. 5, 2017.
7 Böhme, M. et al, ‘Messinian Age and Savannah Environment of the Possible Hominin Graecopithecus from Europe’, PLOS ONE, Vol. 12, No. 5, 2017.
8 Gierliński, G. D., ‘Possible Hominin Footprints from the Late Miocene (c. 5.7 Ma) of Crete?’, Proceedings of the Geologist’s Association, Vol. 128, Issues 5–6, pp. 697–710, 2017.
CHAPTER 19
1 Reyjol, Y. et al, ‘Patterns in Species Richness and Endemism of European Freshwater Fish’, Global Ecology and Biogeography, 15 December 2006.
2 Frimodt, C., Multilingual Illustrated Guide to the World’s Commercial Coldwater Fish, Fishing News Books, Osney Mead, Oxford, 1995.
3 Venczel, M. and Sanchiz, B., ‘A Fossil Plethodontid Salamander from the Middle Miocene of Slovakia (Caudata, Plethodontidae)’, AmphibiaReptilia, Vol. 26, pp. 408–11, 2005.
4 Naish, D., ‘The Korean Cave Salamander’, Scientific American blog, 18 August 2015.
CHAPTER 20
1 Stroganov, A. N., ‘Genus Gadus (Gadidae): Composition, Distribution, and Evolution of Forms’, Journal of Ichthyology, Vol. 55, pp. 319–36, 2015.
CHAPTER 21
1 Willis, K. J. and McElwain, J. C., The Evolution of Plants, (2nd ed.), Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2014.
2 Cadbury, D., Terrible Lizard: The First Dinosaur Hunters and the Birth of a New Science, Henry Holt, New York, 2000.
3 Owen, R., ‘On the Fossil Vertebrae of a Serpent (Laophis crotaloïdes, Ow.) Discovered by Capt. Spratt, R. N., in a Tertiary Formation at Salonica’, Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, Vol. 13, pp. 197–98, 1857.
4 Ibid.
5 Boev, Z. and Koufous, G., ‘Presence of Pavo bravardi (Gervais, 1849) (Aves, Phasianidae) in the Ruscinian Locality of Megalo Emvolon, Macedonia, Greece’, Geologica Balcanica, Vol. 30, pp. 60–74, 2000.
Pappas, S., ‘Biggest Venomous Snake Ever Revealed in New Fossils’, Live Science, 6 November 2014.
6 Georgalis, G. et al, ‘Rediscovery of Laophis crotaloides—The World’s Largest Viper’, Journal of Vertebrate Palaeontology Programme and Abstracts Book, Berlin, 2014.
7 Pérez-García, A. et al, ‘The Last Giant Continental Tortoise of Europe: A Survivor in the Spanish Pleistocene Site of Fonelas P-1’, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, Vol. 470, pp. 30–39, 2017.
8 Bibi, F. et al, ‘The Fossil Record and Evolution of Bovidae: State of the Field’, Palaeontologia Electronica, No. 12(3) 10A, 2009.
9 Pimiento, C. and Balk, M. A., ‘Body-Size Trends of the Extinct Giant Shark Carcharocles megalodon: A Deep-Time Perspective on Marine Apex Predators’, Paleobiology, Vol. 41, No. 3, pp. 479–90, 2015.
10 Larramendi, A., ‘Shoulder Height, Body Mass and Shape of Proboscideans’, Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, Vol. 61, No. 3, pp. 537–74, 2016.
11 Van der Made, J. and Mazo, A. V., ‘Proboscidean Dispersal from Africa towards Western Europe’, in Reumer, J. W. F. et al (eds.), ‘Advances in Mammoth Research’, Proceedings of the Second International Mammoth Conference, Rotterdam, 16–20 May 1999.
12 Azzaroli, A., ‘Quaternary Mammals and the “End-Villafranchian” Dispersal Event—A Turning Point in the History of Eurasia’, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, Vol. 44, pp. 117–39, 1983.
13 Sotnikova, M. and Rook, L., ‘Dispersal of the Canini (Mammalia, Canidae, Caninae) across Eurasia during the Late Miocene to Early Pleistocene’, Quaternary International, Vol. 212, pp. 86–97, 2010.
CHAPTER 22
1 Lisiecki, L. E. and Raymo, M. E., ‘A Pliocene-Pleistocene Stack of 57 Globally Distributed Benthic δ18O Records’, Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology, 18 January 2005.
2 Blondel, J. et al, The Mediterranean Region: Biological Diversity in Space and Time, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2010.
3 Ibid.
4 Rook, L. and Martinez-Navarro, B., ‘Villafranchian: The Long Story of a Plio-Pleistocene European Large Mammal Biochronologic Unit’, Quaternary International, Vol. 219, pp. 134–44, 2010.
5 Arribas, A. et al, ‘A Mammalian Lost World in Southwest Europe during the Late Pliocene’, PLOS ONE, Vol. 4, No. 9, 2009.
6 Turner, A. et al, ‘The Giant Hyena, Pachycrocuta brevirostris (Mammalia, Carnivora, Hyaenidae), Geobios, Vol. 29, pp. 455–86, 1995.
7 Croitor, R., ‘Early Pleistocene Small-Sized Deer of Europe’, Hellenic Journal of Geosciences, Vol. 41, pp. 89–117, 2006.
8 Rook, L. and Martinez-Navarro, B., ‘Villafranchian: The Long Story of a Plio-Pleistocene European Large Mammal Biochronologic Unit’, Quaternary International, Vol. 219, pp. 134–44, 2010.
9 Ibid.
CHAPTER 23
1 Fisher, R. A., The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1930.
2 Gray, A., ‘Mammalian Hybrids’, Commonwealth Agriculture Bureaux, Edinburgh, Technical Publication No. 10, 1972.
3 Mallet, J., ‘Hybridisation as an Invasion of the Genome’, Trends in Ecology and Evolution, Vol. 20, pp. 229–37, 2005.
4 Kumar, V. et al, ‘The Evolutionary History of Bears Is Characterised by Gene Flow across Species’, Scientific Reports 7, Article No. 46487, 2017.
5 Palkopoulou, E. et al, ‘A Comprehensive Genomic History of Extinct and Living Elephants’, PubMed, National Institute of Health, 13 March 2018.
6 López Bosch, D., ‘Hybrids and Sperm Thieves: Amphibian Kleptons’, All You Need Is Biology, blog, 24 July 2016.
7 Gautier, M. et al, ‘Deciphering the Wisent Demographic and Adaptive Histories from Individual Whole-Genome Sequences’, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. Mol. Biol. Evol., Vol. 33, No. 11, pp. 2801–14, 2016.
8 Mallet, J., ‘Hybridisation as an Invasion of the Genome’, Trends in Ecology and Evolution, Vol. 20, pp. 229–37, 2005.
9 ‘Funny Creature “Toast of Botswana”’, BBC News, 3 July 2000.
10 Darwin, C., What Mr. Darwin Saw in His Voyage Round the World in the Ship ‘Beagle’, Harper & Bros., New York, 1879.
11 Hermansen, J. S. et al, ‘Hybrid Speciation in Sparrows 1: Phenotypic Intermediacy, Phenotypic Admixture and Barriers to Gene Flow’, Molecular Ecology, Vol. 2, pp. 3812–22, 2011.
12 Vallego-Marin, M., ‘Hybrid Species Are on the March—with the Help of Humans’, The Conversation, 31 May 2016.
Noble, L., ‘Hybrid “Super-
Slugs” Are Invading British Gardens, and We Can’t Stop Them’, The Conversation, 19 April 2017.
CHAPTER 24
1 Sotnikova, M. and Rook, L., ‘Dispersal of the Canini (Mammalia, Canidae: Caninae) across Eurasia during the Late Miocene to Early Pleistocene’, Quaternary International, Vol. 212, pp. 86–97, 2010.
2 Ferring, R. et al, ‘Earliest Human Occupations at Dmanisi (Georgian Caucasus) Dated to 1.85–1.78 Ma.’, PNAS, Vol. 108, pp. 10432–36, 2013.
3 Lordkipanidze, D. et al, ‘Postcranial Evidence from Early Homo from Dmanisi, Georgia’, Nature, Vol. 449, pp. 305–10, 2007.
4 Lordkipanidze, D. et al, ‘The Earliest Toothless Hominin Skull’, Nature, Vol. 434, pp. 717–18, 2005.
5 Bower, B., ‘Evolutionary Back Story: Thoroughly Modern Spine Supported Human Ancestor’, Science News, Vol. 169. p. 275, 2009.
6 Mourer-Chauviré, C, and Geraads, D., ‘The Struthionidae and Pelagornithidae (Aves: Struthioniformes, Odontopterygiformes) from the Late Pliocene of Ahl Al Oughlam, Morocco’, Semantic Scholar, 2008.
7 Fernández-Jalvo, Y. et al, ‘Human Cannibalism in the Early Pleistocene of Europe (Gran Dolina, Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain)’, Journal of Human Evolution, Vol. 37, pp. 591–622, 1999.
8 Ashton, N. et al, ‘Hominin Footprints from Early Pleistocene Deposits at Happisburgh, UK’, PLOS ONE, 7 February 2014.
9 Wutkke, M., ‘Generic Diversity and Distributional Dynamics of the Palaeobatrachidae (Amphibia: Anura)’, Palaeodiversity and Palaeoenvrinonments, Vol. 92, No. 3, pp. 367–95, 2012.
CHAPTER 25
1 Golek, M. and Rieder, H., ‘Erprobung der Altpalaolithischen Wurfspeere vol Schöningen’, Internationale Zeitschrift fűr Geschichte des Sports, 25, Academic Verlag Sankt Augustin, 1–12, 1999.
2 Kozowyk, P. et al, ‘Experimental Methods for the Palaeolithic Dry Distillation of Birch Bark: Implications for the Origin and Development of Neandertal Adhesive Technology’, Scientific Reports, Vol. 7, p. 8033, 2017.
3 Mazza, P. et al, ‘A New Palaeolithic Discovery: Tar-Hafted Stone Tools in a European Mid-Pleistocene Bone-Bearing Bed’, Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol. 33, pp. 1310–18, 2006.
4 ‘The First Europeans—One Million Years Ago’, BBC Science and Nature.
5 King, W., ‘The Reputed Fossil Man of the Neanderthal’, Quarterly Journal of Science, Vol. 1, p. 96, 1864.
6 Froehle, A. W. and Churchill, S. E., ‘Energetic Competition between Neandertals and Anatomically Modern Humans’, PaleoAnthropology, pp. 96–116, 2009.
Papagianni, D. and Morse, M., The Neanderthals Rediscovered: How Modern Science Is Rewriting Their Story, Thames & Hudson, London, 2013.
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7 Hoffecker, J. F. ‘The Spread of Modern Humans in Europe’, PNAS, Vol. 106, pp. 16040–45, 2009.
8 Boquet-Appel, J. P. and Degioanni, A., ‘Neanderthal Demographic Estimates’, Current Anthropology, Vol. 54, Issue 8, pp. 202–13, 2013.
9 Bergström, A. and Tyler-Smith, C., ‘Palaeolithic Networking’, Science, Vol. 358 (6363), pp. 586–87, 2017.
10 Tattersall, I., The Strange Case of the Rickety Cossack and other Cautionary Tales from Human Evolution, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2015.
11 Laleuza-Fox, C. et al, ‘A Melanocortin 1 Receptor Allele Suggests Varying Pigmentation Among Neanderthals’, Science, Vol. 318 (5855), pp. 1453–55, 2007.
12 Pierce, E. et al, ‘New Insights into Differences in Brain Organization between Neanderthals and Anatomically Modern Humans’, Proceedings of the Royal Society (B), 280: 20130168, 2013.
13 Schwartz, S., ‘The Mourning Dawn: Neanderthal Funerary Practices and Complex Response to Death’, HARTS and Minds, Vol. 1, No. 3, 2013–14.
14 Hoffman, D. L. et al, ‘U-Th Dating of Carbonate Crusts Reveals Neandertal Origin of Iberian Cave Art’, Science, Vol. 359, pp. 912–15, 2018.
15 Radovčić, D., ‘Evidence for Neandertal Jewelry: Modified White-Tailed Eagle Claws at Krapina’, PLOS ONE, 11 March 2015.
16 Joubert, J. et al, ‘Early Neanderthal Constructions Deep in Bruniquel Cave in Southwestern France’, Nature, Vol. 534, pp. 111–14, 2016.
17 Lascu, C., Piatra Altarului, no publisher, undated.
18 Engelhard, M., Ice Bear: The Cultural History of an Arctic Icon, University of Washington Press, Washington, 2016.
19 Hingham, T. et al, ‘The Timing and Spatiotemporal Patterning of Neanderthal Disappearance’, Nature, Vol. 512, pp. 306–09, 2014.
CHAPTER 26
1 Hershkovitz, I., et al, ‘The Earliest Modern Humans Outside Africa’, Science, Vol. 359, pp. 456–59, 2018.
Richter, D. et al, ‘The Age of the Hominin Fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, and the Origins of the Middle Stone Age’, Nature, Vol. 546, pp. 293–96, 2017.
Fu, Q. et al, ‘Genome Sequence of a 45,000-Year-Old Modern Human from Western Siberia’, Nature, Vol. 514, pp. 445–49, 2016.
2 Fu, Q. et al, ‘The Genetic History of Ice-age Europe’, Nature, Vol. 534, pp. 200–05, 2016.
3 Fu, Q. et al, ‘An Early Modern Human Ancestor from Romania with a Recent Neanderthal Ancestor’, Nature, Vol. 524, pp. 216–19, 2015.
4 Ibid.
5 Hartwell Jones, G., The Dawn of European Civilisation, Gilbert and Rivington, London, 1903.
6 Green, R. E. et al, ‘Draft Full Sequence of Neanderthal Genome’, Science, Vol. 328, pp. 710–22, 2010.
7 Mendez, F. L. et al, ‘The Divergence of Neandertal and Modern Human Y Chromosomes’, American Journal of Human Genetics, Vol. 98, No. 4, pp. 728–34, 2016.
8 Sankararaman, S., et al, ‘The Genomic Landscape of Neanderthal Ancestry in Present-day Humans’, Nature, Vol. 507, pp. 354–57, 2014.
9 Bennazi, S. et al, ‘Early Dispersal of Modern Humans in Europe and Implications for Neanderthal Behaviour’, Nature, Vol. 279, pp. 525–28, 2011. Hingham, T. et al, ‘The Earliest Evidence of Anatomically Modern Humans in Northwestern Europe’, Nature, Vol. 479, pp. 521–24, 2011.
10 Vernot, B. and Akey, J. M., ‘Resurrecting Surviving Neandertal Lineages from Modern Human Genomes’, Science, Vol. 343, pp. 1017–21, 2014.
11 Fu, Q. et al, ‘The Genetic History of Ice-age Europe’, Nature, Vol. 534, pp. 200–05, 2016.
12 Yong, E., ‘Surprise! 20 Percent of Neanderthal Genome Lives on in Modern Humans, Scientists Find’, National Geographic, 29 January 2014.
CHAPTER 27
1 Dvorsky, G, ‘A 40,000 Year-Old Sculpture Made Entirely from Mammoth Ivory’, Gizmodo, 2 August, 2013.
2 Quiles, A. et al, ‘A High-Precision Chronological Model for the Decorated Upper Palaeolithic Cave of Chauvet-Pont d’Arc, Ardéche, France’, PNAS, Vol. 113, pp. 4670–75, 2016.
3 Thalmann, O. et al, ‘Complete Mitochondrial Genomes of Ancient Canids Suggest a European Origin of Domestic Dogs’, Science, Vol. 342, Issue 6160, pp. 871–74, 2013.
4 Sotnikova, M. and Rook, L., ‘Dispersal of the Canini (Mammalia, Canidae, Caninae) across Eurasia during the Late Miocene to Early Pleistocene’, Quaternary International, Vol. 212, pp. 86–97, 2010.
5 Dugatkin, L. A. and Trutt, L., How to Tame a Fox, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 2017.
6 Napierala, H., and Uerpmann, H-P., ‘A “New” Palaeolithic Dog from Central Europe’, International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, Vol. 22, pp. 127–37, 2010.
7 Frantz, L. A. F., et al, ‘Genomic and Archaeological Evidence Suggest a Dual Origin of Domestic Dogs’, Science, Vol. 352, Issue 6290, pp. 1228–31, 2016.
Botigué, L. R., et al, ‘Ancient European Dog Genomes Reveal Continuity Since the Early Neolithic’, Nature Communications, Vol. 8, Article No. 16082, 2017.
CHAPTER 28
1 Callaway, E., ‘Elephant History Rewritten by Ancient Genomes’, Nature, News, 16 September 2016.
2 Palkopoulou, E. et al, ‘A Compr
ehensive Genomic History of Extinct and Living Elephants’, PNAS, 26 February 2018.
3 Thieme, H. and Veil, S., ‘Neue Untersuchungen zum eemzeitlichen Elefanten-Jagdplatz Lengingen’, Ldkg. Verden. Die Kunde, Vol. 236, pp. 11–58, 1985.
4 Geer, A. van der, et al, Evolution of Island Mammals, Wiley Blackwell, UK, 2010.
CHAPTER 29
1 Pushkina, D., ‘The Pleistocene Easternmost Distribution in Eurasia of the Species Associated with the Eemian Palaeloxodon antiquus Assemblage’, Mammal Reviews, Vol. 37, pp. 224–45, 2007.
2 Pulcher, E., ‘Erstnachweis des europaischen Wilkdesels (Equus hydruntius, Regalia, 1907) im Holozan Österreichs’, 1991.
3 Naito, Y. I. et al, ‘Evidence for Herbivorous Cave Bears (Ursus spelaeus) in Goyet Cave, Belgium: Implications for Palaeodietary Reconstruction of Fossil Bears Using Amino Acid δ15N Approaches’, Journal of Quaternary Science, Vol. 31, pp. 598–606, 2016.
4 Pacher, M. and Stuart, A., ‘Extinction Chronology and Palaeobiology of the Cave Bear (Ursus spelaeus)’, Boreas, Vol. 35, Issue 2, pp. 189–206, 2008.
5 MüS, C. and Conard, N. J., ‘Cave Bear Hunting in the Hohle Fels, a Cave Site in the Ach Valley, Swabian Jura’, Revue de Paléobiologie, Vol. 23, Issue 2, pp. 877–85, 2004.
6 Gonzales, S. et al, ‘Survival of the Irish Elk into the Holocene’, Nature, Vol. 405, pp. 753–54, 2000.
7 Kirillova, I. V., ‘On the Discovery of a Cave Lion from the Malyi Anyui River (Chukotka, Russia)’, Quaternary Science Reviews, Vol. 117, pp. 135–51, 2015.
8 Bocherens, H. et al, ‘Isotopic Evidence for Dietary Ecology of Cave Lion (Panthera spelaea) in North-Western Europe: Prey Choice, Competition and Implications for Extinction’, Quaternary International, Vol. 245, pp. 249–61, 2011.
9 Cuerto, M. et al, ‘Under the Skin of a Lion: Unique Evidence of Upper Palaeolithic Exploitation and Use of Cave Lion (Panthera spelaea) from the Lower Gallery of La Garma (Spain)’, PLOS ONE, Vol. 11, Issue 10, Article no. e0163591, 2016.
10 Rohland, N. et al, ‘The Population History of Extant and Extinct Hyenas’, Molecular Biology and Evolution, Vol. 22, pp. 2435–43, 2005.
11 Varela, S. et al, ‘Were the Late European Climatic Changes Responsible for the Disappearance of the European Spotted Hyena Populations? Hindcasting a Species Geographic Distribution across Time’, Quaternary Science Reviews, Vol. 29, pp. 2027–35, 2010.