The Complete Fables

by Aesop

  In Sanskrit the word amara means also ‘undying, immortal, imperishable’ and in the Indian epic, the Mahābhārata, Amara actually appears as a deity. The number 33 and the letter ‘u’ were also called amara for mystical reasons. The word was also applied to the umbilical cord, to the afterbirth, to quicksilver, to a sacred mountain and was the name of the residence of the god Indra. But the Hindus, too, had a tradition of an imperishable flower, and they called several plants by the name of amara, including even a species of pine. There were at least half a dozen different Indian amaranths, in fact, some associated with the god Amara and some merely using the word as a descriptive adjective. No modern scholar seems to have sorted it all out. But the importance of the tradition cannot be overestimated.

  Amaratva (immortality) was ‘the condition of the gods’. So, in effect, the amaranths of the Hindus were actually the gods themselves. The only major Greek divinity to whom the name amaranth was applied was Artemis, whose origins were in Asia Minor. Roscher points out in his Mythological Lexicon that amaranth in Greece sometimes became Amarynthos, and that he was the father of Narcissus. And he refers to the geographer Strabo, who mentions in his Geography (X, 9, 448) an archaic Temple of Artemis Amarynthia on the island of Euboea. Strabo also mentions a site called Amarynthia at Eretria in Euboea, which was probably a very early sacred precinct. These archaic Euboean occurrences are significant in that they are evidently survivals of pre-Greek traditions. Burkert has pointed out the significance of Euboea as a link between Greece and the East in early times (The Orientalizing Revolution: Near-Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age by Walter Burkert, Harvard University Press, 1995, p. 10), referring to Euboea as a ‘relatively affluent community in the tenth and ninth centuries [BC] which was open to trade with the East’, where ancient traditions, both Indo-European and Semitic, took root.

  S. A. Handford was wrong to imply in the earlier Penguin Aesop (note to 142) that the amaranth tradition was a late one, whereas, on the contrary, it was so ancient that we cannot trace its origins since they go back further than any texts. Nor was he correct to say that the word was late, since, in the form amaranth, it is earlier than Greek civilization itself at Euboea and, as we have seen, it goes back to proto-Indo-European since it survives in Sanskrit and must therefore originate before the Aryans migrated to India and separated from the peoples who later became the Greeks. The concept of the amaranth cannot, therefore, be more recent than 2000 BC, and is probably much earlier. In all probability the imperishable flower as symbol of the immortal gods goes back tens of thousands of years; we know that Neanderthal men threw flowers into graves, and the proximity to nature of early mankind makes such associations obvious.

  As for the actual plant referred to in the fable, it may have been the weed ingloriously known in English as the pigweed. A more fashionable ‘amaranth’ cultivated by gardeners today is ‘love-lies-bleeding’. But amaranth was never a term of botanical precision and the father of botany, Theophrastus, appears not to mention it (it is not in his Historia Plantarum but, as there is no index to his De Causis Plantarum, we cannot be certain for that work), evidently not considering it a precise enough term to describe any single plant. In short, the amaranth, with its associations with immortality, was more an idea than a plant and, from early times, any plant which dried well or had imperishable aspects partook of the idea of amaranth in the sense of the Sanskrit amaratva – the condition of the gods who never die.

  324

  The Pomegranate Tree, the Apple Tree, the Olive Tree and the Bramble Bush

  One day the pomegranate tree, the apple tree and the olive tree were contesting the quality of their fruits. The discussion became rather animated and a bramble, who was listening to them from a nearby hedgerow, said:

  ‘Dear friends, do let us stop quarrelling with one another!’

  It is thus that, at those times when the best of the citizens are divided, people of low birth try to assume importance.

  NOTE: In our more egalitarian times the nature of this joke may be rather lost on us, but its point was to astonish and amuse by the fact that the despised bramble could presume to consider itself a ‘friend’ of the stately fruit trees, as if a slave were to go up to a master and invite him to sit down.

  325

  The Trumpeter

  A trumpeter who summoned the assembly of troops was captured by the enemy and called out:

  ‘Do not kill me, comrades, without due consideration and for no reason. For I have not killed any of you and apart from my brass [chalkos] I have nothing.’

  But someone replied:

  ‘All the more reason for you to die, since, not being able to go to war yourself, you arouse everyone else to combat.’

  This fable shows that those who provoke evil are the more guilty.

  NOTE: In Greek the same word, chalkos, means copper, brass or bronze, but in this instance clearly it is used in the colloquial sense of a brass’. As for the ancient Greek trumpet, salpinx, it was specifically a war trumpet.

  326

  The Mole and His Mother

  A mole – the mole is a blind creature – said to his mother that he could see. To put him to the test, his mother gave him a grain of frankincense [libanōtos] and asked him what it was.

  ‘It’s a pebble,’ he said.

  ‘My child,’ replied the mother, ‘not only are you bereft of sight, but you have also lost your sense of smell.’

  Similarly, boastful people promise the impossible and are proved powerless in the most simple affairs.

  327

  The Wild Boar and the Fox

  A wild boar was sharpening his tusks on a tree trunk one day. A fox asked him why he did this when there was neither huntsman nor danger threatening him.

  ‘I do so for a good reason,’ he replied. ‘For if I am suddenly surprised by danger I wouldn’t have the time to sharpen my tusks. But now I will find them ready to do their duty.’

  This fable shows that it is no good waiting until danger comes to be ready.

  328

  The Wild Boar, the Horse and the Huntsman

  The wild boar and the horse shared the same pasture. Because the wild boar continually ruined the grass and muddied the water, the horse, wanting to have his revenge, turned to a hunter for help. But the latter announced that he couldn’t lend him a hand unless he would agree to wear a bridle and to carry him on his back. The horse yielded to all his demands. Then the huntsman mounted on to his back, took and overcame the boar and, leading the horse home, he tied him to the stable rack.

  Thus, blind rage makes many people wreak vengeance on their enemies, thereby throwing themselves under the yoke of other people’s power.

  329

  The Sow and the Dog Insulting One Another

  The sow and the dog were outdoing each other with insults. The sow swore by Aphrodite that she would tear the dog to pieces. The dog replied ironically:

  ‘It’s all very well for you to swear by Aphrodite. It’s evident she loves you with all her tenderness, she who absolutely refuses to admit to her temple anyone who has tasted of your impure flesh.’

  ‘That is even more proof that the goddess cherishes me, since it means that she simply throws out anyone who kills me or maltreats me in any way at all. As for you, you smell bad – worse when you’re alive than when you’re dead.’

  This fable shows that prudent rhetors skilfully turn the insults of their enemies into commendation.

  330

  The Wasps, the Partridges and the Ploughman

  Some wasps and some partridges, desperate with thirst, went to a ploughman to ask him for a drink, promising in exchange for a little water to render him a service. The partridges offered to dig his vines and the wasps offered to buzz around to divert thieves with their stings. The farmer replied:

  ‘But I have two oxen who do everything for me without any promises. It would be better that I give them water rather than you.’

  This fable applies
to corrupt men who promise their services and cause great damage.

  331

  The Wasp and the Snake

  One day, a wasp settled on the head of a snake and tormented it, stinging him without respite. The snake, mad with pain, not being able to take revenge on his enemy, put his head under the wheel of a wagon. And thus the wasp died with him.

  This fable shows that some people do not recoil from the idea of dying with their enemies.

  332

  The Bull and the Wild Goats

  A bull was being chased by a lion and took refuge in a cave where there were some wild goats. Gored and butted by them, he said:

  ‘If I endure your blows it’s not because I am afraid of you. What I am in fear of is standing outside the cave.’

  It is often thus, that the fear of someone stronger than us makes us tolerate the attacks of someone weaker than ourselves.

  333

  The Peacock and the Crane

  The peacock was making fun of the crane and criticizing his colour:

  ‘I am dressed in gold and purple,’ he said. ‘You wear nothing beautiful on your wings.’

  ‘But I,’ replied the crane, ‘sing near to the stars and I mount up to the heights of heaven. You, like the cockerels, can only mount the hens down below.’

  It would be better to be renowned and in poor garments than to live without honour in rich attire.

  334

  The Peacock and the Jackdaw

  The birds were consulting together on the choice of a king. The peacock demanded to be named king by virtue of his beauty. And the birds were about to vote for him when the jackdaw called out:

  ‘But if you reign, what help can we expect from you when the eagle comes hunting for us?’

  This fable shows that you should not reprimand those who, foreseeing future dangers, take precautions in advance.

  335

  The Cicada and the Fox

  A cicada was singing at the top of a lofty tree. A fox, who wanted to eat it, thought up the following trick. He took up his position opposite her, he admired her delightful singing and he invited her to come down. He said he would like to see the creature which possessed such a beautiful voice. Suspecting the trap, the cicada tore off a leaf and let it fall. The fox pounced upon it, believing it was the cicada.

  ‘You are mistaken, friend,’ she said to him, ‘if you believed that I would come down. I have mistrusted foxes ever since the day when I saw the wings of a cicada in a fox’s droppings.’

  The misfortunes of a neighbour make a sensible man wiser.

  336

  The Cicada and the Ants

  It was winter. Their grain was damp and the ants were drying it. A cicada, who was hungry, asked them for something to eat. The ants replied:

  ‘Why didn’t you too store up some provisions during the summer?’

  ‘I didn’t have the time for that,’ replied the cicada. ‘I was singing melodiously.’

  The ants made fun of her:

  ‘Ah well,’ they said, ‘since you sang in summer you can dance in winter.’

  This fable shows that in all things one should beware of negligence, if one wishes to avoid danger and trouble.

  NOTE: Some people have made rude remarks about the cicada’s sound being unpleasant. However, it is a most striking and fascinating phenomenon. Cicadas generally sing in groups, and the most remarkable aspect of their song is that it comes in collective waves, so that it is rather like listening to the sea landing on the shore. Many find the orchestral music of the cicadas a comforting solace, especially if they are lonely. No one can be truly alone as long as the cicadas are singing. In China, cicadas are sold in little bamboo cages, taken home and hung in the house for their pleasant song, carefully fed and treated as pets. Sometimes the Chinese carry their cicadas along with them as company, enjoying their loud song in the way that many people carry small radios.

  337

  The Wall of the House and the Stake

  A house wall, brutally pierced by a stake, cried:

  ‘Why are you piercing me, who have done you no harm?’

  The stake replied:

  ‘It’s not me who is the cause of your suffering but the one who is violently hitting me from behind.’

  NOTE: There is no moral attached to this fable. The fable itself is peculiar in that it uses the word palos for ‘stake’ (which became palus in Latin and ‘pale’ in obsolete English usage). According to Liddell and Scott, this meaning for palos is a Byzantine usage, as the traditional meaning of palos was a ‘lot’ which was drawn. Can this be a very late fable? Or do we have here early evidence of a folk usage of palos which did not find its way into formal texts until centuries later? In the 1996 edition of Liddell and Scott, the reference ‘Aesop. 402’ has been inserted, referring to this fable. Otherwise no use of the word to mean ‘stake’ is recorded before the second century AD. The word toichos is also not the usual word for ‘wall’, but was used specifically for house walls; its use, however, goes back to Homer.

  338

  The Archer and the Lion

  A very skilful archer went up the mountain to go hunting there. All the animals fled from him except for the lion, which alone challenged him to fight. The archer let fly an arrow which struck him. Then he said:

  ‘Such is my messenger, after which I shall come for you myself.’

  The injured lion took flight. A fox then called out to the lion to have courage and not to run away. But the lion replied:

  ‘You can’t fool me. If he has such a stinging messenger, were he to come for me himself what should I do?’

  One should consider the end at the outset and consequently secure one’s safety.

  339

  The Billy-Goat and the Vine

  Just at the time when the vine bursts with young shoots, a billy-goat nibbled the buds. The vine said to him:

  ‘Why do you damage me like this? Is there no more green grass? You needn’t think I’ll provide any less wine than is needed when they come to sacrifice you.’

  This fable confounds people who are ungrateful and who would like to steal from their friends.

  340

  The Hyenas

  They say that hyenas change their sex each year and become males and females alternately. Now, one day a male hyena attempted an unnatural sex act with a female hyena. The female responded:

  ‘If you do that, friend, remember that what you do to me will soon be done to you.’

  This is what one could say to the judge [archon] concerning his successor, if he had to suffer some indignity from him.

  NOTE: This fable appears to have Athenian origins, since the archons were specifically Athenian judges, or chief magistrates, nine in number.

  As for the hyenas, this was also a subject for discussion at Athens in the fourth century BC. At that time Aristotle was writing his accounts of the sexuality of hyenas which appear in his works History of Animals and On the Generation of Animals (trans. A. L. Peck, 1942, Loeb Library Vol. 366), and in both cases he felt that he had to rebut current gossip on the subject. In the former (VI, xxxii, 579b16) he writes: ‘They say that the hyena has both male and female sexual organs. But this is not true.’ He then goes on to describe the minute anatomical details, according to his usual practice. In the latter work (III, vi, 757a2) he writes of the ‘silly’ story which says that hyenas have both male and female sexual organs. He also cites an earlier author, Herodorus of Heraclea, who flourished circa 400 BC, as writing in a book, probably his History of Herakles, that the hyena mounts and is mounted in alternate years. Aristotle then goes on to explain how this erroneous interpretation arose from a too casual inspection of the admittedly confusing genitalia of hyenas.

  The importance of all this is that through his zoological concerns Aristotle is led to give us what is probably the precise origin of our fable, together with its approximate earliest possible date. The notion that hyenas mount and are mounted in alternate years is specifically suggested by Herod
orus, and it is probable that he is the source of the anecdote which led directly to this fable being written.

  341

  The Hyena and the Fox

  They say that hyenas change their sex every year and become alternately male and female. Now, a girl hyena, fancying a fox, reproached him bitterly for rejecting her advances and driving her away from him when she had wished to become friendly with him.

  ‘It’s not to me you should complain,’ retorted the fox, ‘but to your own nature, which gives me no way of knowing whether you would be my girlfriend or my boyfriend.’

  This relates to the sexually ambiguous man.

  NOTE: As with 340, this fable is based upon the notion that hyenas change sex every year, as reported by Herodorus and dismissed by Aristotle. See the note to 340.

  342

  The Sow and the Bitch, on the Ease of Bearing Offspring

  A sow and a bitch were arguing about their ease of bearing offspring. The bitch claimed that of all quadrupeds she was by far the quickest to give birth.

  ‘When you say that,’ retorted the sow, ‘remember that you only give birth to blind puppies.’

  This fable shows that things should be judged not by their rapidity but by the care with which they are performed.