The Use and Reuse of Stone Circles

by Richard Bradley

  For permission to undertake this work we must thank Malcolm Allen (Tuach), Athel Price (Croftmoraig), Simon Power, Rab Blackall, the McRobert Trust (Waulkmill and Hillhead), and Peter Muskus (Laikenbuie). The Hill of Tuach and Croftmoraig are Scheduled Ancient Monuments and we are grateful to Historic Scotland for allowing work to take place there. We are grateful to Martin Brann and Oliver Lewis for their help and support.

  The project at Tuach was funded by the British Academy and that at Hillhead by Aberdeenshire Council. The Waulkmill excavation received invaluable help in kind from the McRobert Trust and the work at Croftmoraig was funded from prize money from the Prehistoric Society. Radiocarbon dating was funded by Historic Scotland (Croftmoraig), National Museums Scotland (Croftmoraig and Tuach), Aberdeenshire Council (Hillhead and Waulkmill) and the Nairn Discretionary Fund of Highland Council (Laikenbuie). Aberdeenshire Council also funded the conservation of the metalwork from Waulkmill and the publication of colour photographs in this book.

  Unless otherwise stated, the illustrations in this account are by Sarah Lambert Gates (Chapters 3–5), or Alessandro Guaggenti who is responsible for the drawings in the remaining chapters. We must also thank Alan Braby, Marion O’Neil and Craig Williams for their contributions. Nearly all the photographs are by Aaron Watson or Richard Bradley – other images are credited in the captions and we must thank the people who provided them. Many people contributed their expertise to the analysis of the excavated material and we owe a special debt of gratitude to Fraser Hunter, Fiona Shapland and Alison Sheridan for providing their contributions when they had far more pressing concerns.

  We received valuable advice from many colleagues who visited us in the field or commented on drafts of this volume: (in alphabetical order) Trevor Cowie, Peter Craig, George Currie, Hilary and Charly Murray, Brendan O’Connor, Rick Schulting, Dougie Scott, Alison Sheridan and Adam Welfare. The early stages of the work were discussed with Moira Greig and the late Ian Shepherd and its subsequent development has greatly benefitted from discussion with Bruce Mann, David Strachan and Rod McCullagh.

  Many of the team who participated in these projects are local to the area and their involvement made the research all the more involving. They include: (again in alphabetical order) Diane Collinson, Maria Cowie, Sheila Duthie, Nigel Healy, Moyra Simon, Colin Mitchell, Irvine Ross, Jane Summers and Sheila Young. Ronnie Scott played a vital part in the work. Apart from working on all the sites, he stored the finds from these projects and undertook his own excavation at Laikenbuie. Among those who came from a greater distance were Elise Fraser, Alice Rogers, Jon Tierney and Aaron Watson. Nothing would have happened without the skill, enthusiasm and hard work of all these people.

  Last but not least we must thank Mabel Lawson who lives at Hillhead for sharing her recollections of her childhood there when she played inside a stone circle whose remains were nearly lost two years ago.

  Richard Bradley, Amanda Clarke and Courtney Nimura

  List of Figures

  0.1. Locations of the five excavations published in this study

  1.1. Varieties of circular monuments in northern and northeastern Scotland

  1.2. The distributions of Clava Cairns, recumbent stone circles and henge monuments in northeast Scotland and along the inner Moray Firth

  2.1. The locations of the three excavated monuments in the Howe of Cromar in relation to the areas investigated by fieldwalking

  2.2. The siting of the four stone circles in the Howe of Cromar, showing the extent of high ground and the area that can be seen from Hillhead

  2.3. Outline plan of Hillhead showing the principal features, the extent of excavation and the locations of the published sections

  2.4. Kite photo taken from the east showing forestry trenches and exposed rubble at the start of the 2013 excavation

  2.5. Trench 1 showing the positions of the internal wall, the external kerb and the fallen monolith

  2.6. Photogrammetric survey plans of the rubble of the ring cairn in Trench 1

  2.7. Section of the ring cairn in Trench 1 at Hillhead

  2.8. Section 1 through the eastern perimeter of the ring cairn

  2.9. The primary wall on the east side of the ring cairn

  2.10. Detail of the inner kerb in Trench 4 showing a deposit of flat slabs interpreted as a shallow step

  2.11. The inner kerb in Trench 4 showing how it has been pushed outwards by the mass of the ring cairn

  2.12. Section 2 through the western perimeter of the ring cairn

  2.13. The remains of the ring cairn in Trench 3

  2.14. Section 2 of the ring cairn on the west side of the circuit

  2.15. The outer kerb of the ring cairn viewed from the east

  2.16. Detail of the outer kerb on the eastern side of the monument, showing the remains of two kerbstones and the scarp left where others were removed

  2.17. Trench 1 showing a fallen monolith

  2.18. Photogrammetric survey plan of the rubble of the ring cairn in Trench 3 viewed from the north

  2.19. The hollow in between the terminals interpreted as the position of the recumbent stone

  2.20. The stone-packed hollow interpreted as the socket from which the northern flanker had been removed

  2.21. A broken monolith interpreted as part of the southern flanker

  2.22. A broken monolith interpreted as part of the northern flanker

  2.23. Part of the void left marking the socket for the southern flanker, masked by the surviving part of the recumbent stone

  2.24. Secondary features in the centre of the monument

  2.25. The area of heat-affected subsoil in Trench 1, and the slab-lined hearth or fireplace which contained a dense deposit of charcoal

  2.26. The density of broken quartz inside the monument at Hillhead

  2.27. The location of the Hillhead monument in relation to the finds of worked flint and quartz revealed by tree planting

  2.28. Beaker sherds and a barbed and tanged arrowhead found together in a forestry trench 16 m south of the monument

  3.1. The position of the monument at Waulkmill seen from the Tomnaverie recumbent stone circle

  3.2. The relocated monolith at Waulkmill, with the position of the stone circle under excavation in the background

  3.3. The site of the stone circle under excavation seen from the north

  3.4. The location of Waulkmill stone circle in relation to the local topography

  3.5. The miniature cauldron, penannular brooch, iron dagger and gaming pieces found in the sandpit at the end of the nineteenth century

  3.6. An earlier twentieth century postcard of Tarland

  3.7. Plan of the excavated features at Waulkmill

  3.8. Reconstructions of Early Neolithic Carinated Bowl Pots 1 and 2 from Waulkmill

  3.9. The surviving remains of the stone circle

  3.10. The partly excavated foundation trench for the inner kerb, with a recut pit in the centre capped by a setting of boulders

  3.11. Plan and section of the circular trench and central pit, with details of the secondary recut and the setting of quartzite cobbles

  3.12. The southern horizon from the Waulkmill monument with Mount Keen in the distance on the right

  3.13. Plan and elevation of Grave 1

  3.14. Vertical view of Grave 1 after excavation

  3.15. Outline plan of Grave 2

  3.16. Detailed plan of the lower level of Grave 2

  3.17. Grave 2 showing the setting of boulders towards the left flanking the remains of the wooden coffin

  3.18. The first indication of a coffin stain within Grave 2

  3.19. Two spiral rings and the stain left by the animal skull in Grave 2

  3.20. The mica schist counter and brooch from Grave 1, and the rings from Grave 2

  3.21. The penannular brooch from Grave 1

  3.22. The silver penannular brooch found in 1898

  3.23. The dagger found in the late nineteenth century

  3.24. The gaming coun
ters from 1898

  3.25. The stone ‘gaming pieces’ found in 2012 at Waulkmill

  4.1. The location of Croftmoraig in relation to local round barrows and the Rivers Tay and Lyon

  4.2. The Croftmoraig stone circle viewed from the southeast with the summit of Schiehallion in the background

  4.3. The layout of the different circuits at Croftmoraig in relation to the positions of the portal stones and the decorated slab

  4.4. The stone circle viewed from the south

  4.5. The published plan of the 1965 excavation

  4.6. General view of the 1965 excavation from the south

  4.7. A detail of the ‘ditch’ and postholes excavated in 1965

  4.8. The relationship between Monolith 20, the ring ditch and associated postholes

  4.9. The traces of the ring ditch roundhouse together with the positions of standing and fallen monoliths

  4.10. The published plan of the 1965 excavation, with the positions of the trenches excavated in 2012

  4.11. Sections of the monument during the 1965 excavation

  4.12. Plans and sections of Trenches 1 and 2

  4.13. The stone foundation for the enclosure wall viewed from the interior of the stone circle with Monolith 1 in the foreground

  4.14. The rubble foundation of the enclosure wall, set in a shallow trench on the west side of the circuit

  4.15. Trench 2 at the 2012 excavation showing an unexcavated baulk from the 1965 project and the position of the central erratic in the foreground

  4.16. The glacial erratic at the centre of the stone circle showing where large flakes had been detached in the past

  4.17. The centre of the stone circle during the first project, showing the glacial erratic and evidence that people had dug around it in the past

  4.18. Plans and sections of Trenches 3 and 4

  4.19. Trench 3 showing the positions of two of standing stones and the baulks left between the trenches excavated in 1965

  4.20. Trench 4 showing the remains of the perimeter wall on the south-east side of the enclosure

  4.21. (a) The phasing favoured by Piggott and Simpson 1971; (b) the revised phasing favoured in this study

  4.22. Stone blocks in the enclosure wall on the south-east side of the enclosure

  4.23. Stone blocks in the enclosure wall

  4.24. The relationship between Monolith 4 in the outer circle and the northern post trench for the timber porch

  5.1. The location of the Hill of Tuach in relation to the positions of nearby monuments

  5.2. A reconstruction of the original monument at Tuach, drawn from earlier surveys

  5.3. The surviving part of the Midmill long cairn

  5.4. The position of the Tuach stone circle seen from the Midmill long cairn

  5.5. A spread of granite flakes overlying the filling of the 1855 excavation

  5.6. The surviving remains of the stone circle and henge monument, showing a profile of the earthwork and the extent of the 2011 excavation

  5.7. General view of excavation in between the growing trees

  5.8. Section of the bank and ditch

  5.9. The enclosure ditch looking into the interior of the monument

  5.10. General view of the enclosure earthwork seen from the interior of the monument

  5.11. The surviving part of Stone 4 overlying the filling of the enclosure ditch on the southwest perimeter of the monument

  5.12. Plan of the excavated features at Tuach

  5.13. Excavated pits in the interior of the enclosure at Tuach

  5.14. Urn 4 (left) on its discovery, and Urn 5 (right) showing the cap of redeposited clay over the inverted vessel

  5.15. Urn 1

  5.16. Urn 2

  5.17. Urn 4

  5.18. Urn 5

  5.19. The fragmentary razor found in 2011 inside Urn 5

  5.20. The razor sheath

  5.21. Bone toggle associated with Urn 1 excavated in 1855

  5.22. The flint artefacts from the excavation

  5.23. Pollen analysis for the buried soil

  5.24. The layout of the Early Bronze Age stone circle (above); The layout of the site in the Late Bronze Age (below)

  6.1. Survey of the cairnfield, showing the positions of the excavated monuments

  6.2. General view of the cairnfield from the north with the boundary banks visible towards the right

  6.3. Rubble overlying the earthen mound (3)

  6.4. Section of the mound (3) and possible tree hole

  6.5. The remains of the ring cairn before excavation, looking south

  6.6. Outline plan of the ring cairn and elevation of the kerb on its southern perimeter

  6.7. The surface remains of the ring cairn (1) and two profiles across the monument

  6.8. The extent of excavation and details of the excavated features

  6.9. A deposit of rubble outside the kerb of the ring cairn on the northeast side of the monument

  6.10. Detail of the kerbstones on the southern perimeter of the monument

  6.11. The outer perimeter on the southern side of the monument with the packing of rubble behind it

  6.12. Section of the monument showing the deposit of rubble retained by the boulder kerb

  6.13. Excavating the interior of the ring cairn, with the kerbstones to the left

  6.14. Section of the ring cairn

  6.15. The group of white stones found together just outside the kerb on the east side of the monument

  6.16. Six flaked discs or ‘pot lids’ found on the surface of the ring cairn

  7.1. Two chambered cairns with southwestern alignments, external platforms and stone circles

  7.2. Outline plans of Balnuaran of Clava southwest cairn and Tomnaverie summarising the links between the monoliths and the kerbstones according to materials, textures and colours

  7.3. The structural sequences at Balnuaran of Clava northeast cairn and Tomnaverie

  7.4. Four Scottish monuments with blocked entrances or other features focusing on the south or southwest

  8.1. Secondary cremation pyres at the Hillhead and Old Keig stone circles

  8.2. Outline plan of Moncreiffe with details of the two trenches containing burnt material and cremated bone

  8.3. The evidence for later timber buildings inside the stone circles at Croftmoraig and Strichen

  8.4. Plans of a recumbent stone circle and a large roundhouse at the Candle Stane

  8.5. Distribution of earlier prehistoric monuments with evidence of Roman Iron Age reuse

  8.6. Outline plans of the settlements at Old and New Kinord in relation to the surviving structure at Melgum

  8.7. The sockets of the Waulkmill stone circle and Graves 1 and 2 in relation to the Melgum settlement

  8.8. Distribution of prehistoric monoliths and other structures apparently reused in the Pictish period

  8.9. The Pictish symbol stone from Dingwall showing later motifs apparently superimposed on a distribution of cup marks

  9.1. Distribution of ring cairns with and without stone circles in north-east Scotland (above); Outline plans of the recumbent stone circle at Tilliefourie and the ring cairn at Milestone (below)

  9.2. The stone circles in the Howe of Cromar discussed in this chapter

  9.3. Outline plans of four stone circles in the Howe of Cromar

  9.4. Outline plans of two monuments in northeast Scotland with large open courts at their centre

  9.5. Two pairs of stone monuments, which may have been used in sequence

  10.1. Croftmoraig stone circle viewed from the northeast

  10.2. The small stone circle at Killin close to the west end of Loch Tay

  10.3. The siting of Croftmoraig in relation to Loch Tay and Schiehallion

  10.4. The stone circle viewed from the northeast, emphasising the profile of the mound on which it was built

  10.5. The Machuim stone circle built on an artificial mound on the north side of Loch Tay

  10.6. The profile of Schiehallion which appea
rs on the horizon viewed from the stone circle

  10.7. A sequence of photographs showing the position of the midsummer sun as it sets behind Schiehallion

  10.8. The position of the midwinter sunset as viewed from Croftmoraig

  10.9. Detail of the banded erratic at the centre of the stone circle

  10.10. The heights of the monoliths at Croftmoraig based on the surviving structure and photographs in the 1965 excavation archive

  List of Tables

  2.1. Identified human bone fragments from Context 1007

  2.2. Identified human bone fragments from Context 1021

  3.1. Identified human bone fragments from Context 1031

  3.2. Pre-Roman and Roman Iron Age penannular brooches from Scotland divided by different site types

  3.3. Catalogue of the Waulkmill gaming counters from 1898 (Group 1)

  3.4 Catalogue of finds from the Waulkmill excavation 2012 (Group 2)

  5.1. Identified human bone fragments from the Collared Urn (Urn 4)

  5.2. Identified human bone fragments from the Cordoned Urn (Urn 5)

  5.3 Charcoal identifications

  Abbreviations

  Canmore www.canmore.rcahms.gov.uk

  NESARS North East Scotland Archaeological Research Society

  NMRS National Monuments Record of Scotland

  NMS National Museums Scotland

  RCAHMS Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland

  PART ONE

  Excavations at Five Scottish Monuments

  CHAPTER ONE

  The Development of the Project

  Richard Bradley

  Between 1994 and 2008, together with several colleagues, I was involved in a series of excavations at Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age monuments in northern and north-eastern Scotland. The forms of these structures were closely related to one another, and so at times were their histories (Fig. 1.1). The project took place in Inverness-shire, Caithness and Aberdeenshire and considered three traditions of prehistoric architecture: Clava Cairns, recumbent stone circles and henges (Fig. 1.2). This activity involved four seasons of excavation and survey around Balnuaran of Clava, two seasons at Tomnaverie and three at Broomend of Crichie. The results of this work were supplemented by smaller projects at Cothiemuir Wood, Aikey Brae and Pullyhour. The publications arising from this fieldwork also included the reports on excavations undertaken by other people at Newton of Petty, Strichen, Lairg and Migdale. Three volumes were published, each of them focusing on one of the main architectural traditions. The Good Stones discussed Clava Cairns (Bradley 2000); The Moon and the Bonfire considered recumbent stone circles (Bradley 2005); and Stages and Screens offered an interpretation of henge monuments (Bradley 2011).