Historical Dictionary of the Napoleonic Era

by George F Nafziger

  JAUCOURT, ARNIAL FRANÇOIS, MARQUIS DE (1757–1852). Jaucourt was born of a noble family in Tournon, France, on 14 November 1757. He served in the army and was the colonel of the Condé Regiment when the Revolution erupted. Jaucourt adopted revolutionary ideas and stood in the Assembly for Seine-et-Marne. He was a moderate and resigned in 1792. Jaucourt was arrested in 1792 when he was suspected of being a reactionary. Madame de Staël arranged his release just before the September massacres and he accompanied Talleyrand to England. Jaucourt returned after the execution of Louis XVI and under the Consulate served as president of the Tribunate. In 1803 Jaucourt entered the Senate and in 1804 was part of the household of Joseph Bonaparte, moving first to Naples and then to Spain as Joseph served his brother. During the First Restoration Jaucourt became minister of state and a peer of France. During the Hundred Days he took no office and after the Second Restoration he served briefly as minister of the navy. Jaucourt fought for the Protestant interests in France and remained a member of the upper house throughout the reign of Louis-Philippe. When the Second Republic arose, Jaucourt was driven into private life, but returned to government service under Louis Napoleon. Jaucourt died in Paris on 5 February 1852.

  JENA, BATTLE OF. The battle of Jena was fought on 14 October 1806. Napoleon deployed 96,000 men on the fields above Jena in a thick fog, facing 38,000 Prussians and Saxons in a position of their choosing under the command of Fürst zu Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen. The Prussians were taken by surprise, but still held the advantage. The Prussians launched a series of uncoordinated and unsupported piecemeal attacks on the French that were destroyed individually as they struck at the French lines. They were so badly mauled in their attacks that when the French went over to the attack, the Prusso-Saxon army utterly disintegrated. The French lost from 6,000 to 7,000 casualties. The Prussian army, on the other hand, was utterly destroyed. The Prusso-Saxon army lost an estimated 10,000 casualties and 15,000 prisoners.

  JENA-AUERSTÄDT, BATTLES OF. Twin battles fought on the same day. See Jena and Auerstädt separately. After these two battles, the Prussian army effectively ceased to exist. Fragments of it were chased across Prussia, holding up in various fortresses and surrendering almost as soon as French cavalry appeared at the gates. Only a few scattered remains of the original Prussian army continued to operate and form a nucleus around which General L’Estocq organized a small corps, mostly of new recruits.

  JOSÉPHINE (MARIE-JOSÈPHE-ROSE TASCHER DE LA PAGERIE) (1763–1814). Joséphine was born on 23 June 1763 on the island of Martinique. She was the eldest of three daughters of Joseph Tascher de la Pagerie, a French artillery lieutenant. In 1779 she married Vicomte Alexandre de Beauharnais and bore him two children, Eugène de Beauharnais and Hortense. During the Revolution, her husband, an ex-noble and then a general in the French army, was denounced for the loss of Mainz while he was in command of the Army of the Rhine, and was executed on 23 July 1794. Josephine was also arrested, but was freed by the influence of Jean Tallien, the publisher of a Jacobin newspaper. A single mother in the midst of a revolution, Josephine found assistance from Barras and Jean and Madame Tallien. With their support she soon became one of the leading ladies of Parisian society. It was rumored that during this period she was Barras’s mistress. Napoleon met her and after his nomination to command the Army of Italy, in 1796, he asked her to marry him. The marriage took place on 9 March 1796, two days before he left for his famous 1796 campaign.

  Josephine’s affection for Napoleon appears to have been quite limited. She rarely responded to his letters and while he was in Egypt she had a notorious affair with an artillery officer, a Monsieur Charles. Upon his return, Napoleon gave serious consideration to divorcing her. During the Consulate (1799–1804) their relations were, on the whole, happy, even though the rest of the Bonaparte clan urged him to divorce her after he became Consul for Life (1802). Joséphine knew this and became increasingly anxious about her position, especially after the formation of the Empire (18 May 1804). Her fears were relieved when, on 1 December 1804, the eve of Napoleon’s coronation as Emperor, they were remarried in a religious ceremony by Pope Pius VII.

  Josephine soon saw her two children married into the uppermost classes of Europe. Eugène married the daughter of the King of Bavaria and Hortense married Louis Bonaparte, Napoleon’s brother. The marriage soon soured as Joséphine was unable to bear further children and as Emperor, Napoleon needed a male heir. In 1809, Napoleon announced that reasons of state compelled him to divorce her. The fact that they had not been married in the presence of the parish priest, a minor technicality, was used to justify the nullification of the marriage.

  The allowance Napoleon gave to Joséphine was exceptionally generous and she was given the palace of Malmaison, near Paris. She lived in dignified retirement and was not forgotten by Napoleon, who frequently consulted with her on matters where he valued her judgment, tact and good sense. Joséphine’s son continued as one of Napoleon’s leading generals through the rest of the Empire, though Hortense and Louis were divorced in 1810. Joséphine died on 24 May 1814. When Napoleon returned to Paris, after Waterloo, he visited Malmaison and walked through the chambers where she had spent her solitude.

  JOURDAN, JEAN-BAPTISTE, COUNT, MARÉCHAL D’EMPIRE (1762–1833). Jourdan was born in Limoges, France, on 29 April 1762. He joined the French army as a simple soldier on 2 April 1778. As such Jourdan served in America during its revolution. In late July 1789, because of his prior service, he was elected a captain in the National Guard of Limoges. Jourdan served at Jemappes on 6 November 1792 and at Neerwinden on 18 March 1793. On 27 May 1793 Jourdan was promoted to général de brigade and became a général de division on 30 July 1793. Jourdan continued his military career in the Lowlands and northern France, and was victorious at the battle of Fleurus on 26 June 1794. By September he was sent east to the German frontier and continued there until 1799. Jourdan was sent as a deputy from Haute-Vienne to the Council of Five Hundred on 13 April 1799, expelled on 19 brumaire Year VIII, and threatened with deportation on 10 November. On 21 January 1800 he became inspector general of infantry and cavalry. On 24 July he became ambassador to the Cisalpine Republic. On 19 May 1804 Jourdan was made a maréchal d’Empire.

  In 1806 Jourdan was made chief of staff to King Joseph Bonaparte of Naples and went with him to Spain where he became chief of staff of the Army of Spain, taking up his duties on 22 August 1808. Jourdan served in the field, fighting at Talavera on 28 July 1809 and winning the battle of Almonacid on 11 August. After a short trip to France, he returned to Spain where he became governor of Madrid on 8 July 1811, then resumed his duties under Joseph. Jourdan was engaged by the British at Vitoria and defeated on 21 June 1813. After Vitoria he quit active command and retired, not returning to the field during 1814. During the Hundred Days Jourdan was made commanding general of the Army of the Rhine on 26 June 1815. During the Second Restoration he was president of the Council of War charged with trying Ney. After 1815 his only significant duties occurred from 2 to 11 August 1830 when Jourdan briefly served as minister of foreign affairs. He died in Paris on 23 November 1833.

  JOUY, VICTOR JOSEPH ÉTIENNE DE (1764–1846). Jouy was born at Jouy, near Versailles. He joined the army at an early age and served in Guiana and India before the Revolution. During the Revolution Jouy served with distinction in the early campaigns and rose to the rank of adjutant-general. During the Terror, Jouy fled France, returning after 9 thermidor. In 1821 he wrote a tragedy, Sylla, that was highly successful because of the actor Talma, who had developed his character for the title role based on Napoleon Bonaparte. Under the Restoration Jouy was an ardent advocate for the cause of freedom. His work is less well considered today than when it was written. Jouy died in the palace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye on 4 September 1846.

  JOVELLANOS, GASPAR MELCHOR DE (1744–1811). Jovellanos was born in Gijon, Spain, on 5 January 1744. He studied law and by 1767 was a criminal judge in Seville. Jovellanos served as a judge in Madrid and became a member of the Coun
cil of Military Orders in 1770. He was involved in the fall of Cabarrus and was banished to Gijon from 1790 to 1797.

  Jovellanos was recalled to Madrid in 1797 and named minister of grace and justice under Godoy. Godoy’s conduct, however, so offended him that he joined with Saavedra to force Godoy’s dismissal. When Godoy returned to power in 1798, Jovellanos was banished to Gijon and imprisoned in 1801 in Majorca. The 1808 revolution released Jovellanos and, though showered with offers from King Joseph Bonaparte, he rebuffed them and joined the central junta. Here he helped reorganize the Cortes. Jovellanos fell under suspicion, however, and when the Cortes fell, so did he. Jovellanos died in Vega, Spain, on 27 November 1811.

  Jovellanos is also noted as a writer, having written a tragedy and a comedy, as well as satires and other miscellaneous pieces.

  JUNOT, JEAN ANDOCHE, DUC D’ABRANTÈS (1771–1813). Junot was born in Bussy-le-Grand, France, on 25 September 1771. Junot began his studies at the college of Châtillon-sur-Seine and on 1 September 1791 was a grenadier in the National Guard. He served at Toulon and became secretary to Napoleon. Junot was commissioned shortly later and continued his rise through the ranks, but remained closely tied to Napoleon. On 2 August 1795 he went to Paris as his aide-de-camp. On 10 May 1796 Junot carried the 21 standards captured by Napoleon in Italy to Paris and presented them to the Directory. Junot was a remarkably brave man, killing in single combat six men at the battle of Dezenzano after being wounded on 3 August 1796.

  Junot followed Napoleon to Egypt and served in most of the battles. He was taken by the British at sea and sent to Jaffa, and was later released. He returned to France and was promoted to général de brigade on 27 July 1800 and général de division on 20 November 1801. On 6 July 1804 Junot became colonel general of hussars. Junot served in Portugal and Spain from 1808 until 1812. He commanded the French armies invading Portugal, but handled the campaign badly. Wellington defeated him at Vimiero where he was forced to sign the Convention of Cintra. Junot withdrew his forces from Portugal and continued the war from Spanish territory. However, his reputation never recovered from the disaster.

  In 1812 Junot joined the Russian invasion as a corps commander. Junot was recalled to France on 18 January 1813 and served as governor of Venice and provisional governor of the Illyrian provinces. He retired from service on 22 July 1813. Junot had become emotionally deranged as a result of his misfortunes and threw himself from a window in a fit of insanity. He died at Montbard on 29 July 1813.

  JUNOT, LAURE, DUCHESSE D’ABRANTÈS (1784–1838). Laure was born in Montpellier and she married Andoche Junot early in the Consulate. She was the daughter of Madame Permon, who when widowed had received a proposal of marriage from Napoleon Bonaparte, or so her daughter’s memoirs state. Laure Junot’s family moved to Paris and after the fall of the Jacobins, was frequently visited by Napoleon. Napoleon nicknamed her petite peste (little pest) but treated both Junots with the utmost generosity. Despite this, Laure Junot repaid him with a long stream of sarcasms and slanders in her Mémoires. Her extravagance, coupled with that of her husband, had them frequently at the brink of ruin. This may explain why Laure was involved in the intrigues to restore the Bourbons in 1814. After 1815 she moved to and lived in Rome where, as the survivor of her feud with Napoleon, she took her vengeance on him in those notorious Mémoires. She died in 1838 in Rome.

  – K –

  KALISCH, CONVENTION OF. Signed by Russia and Prussia at Breslau on 27 February and Kalisch on 28 February 1813, this agreement was an offensive and defensive alliance between the Russians and Prussians. It contained twelve articles and three secret articles. It was directed at expelling the French from northern Germany. The Russians were committed to deploying 150,000 men and the Prussians 80,000 men, not counting garrisons. Both parties swore to not negotiate separately with the French. Russia committed itself to working to obtain British subsidies for Prussia. The secret articles committed Russia to support the complete restoration of Prussia to its pre-1806 borders or an equivalent territory, specifically excluding Hanover as possible compensation. Both parties also agreed to work to bring Austria into the alliance.

  KARAGEORGE. See Petrovi, George.

  KATZBACH, BATTLE OF. The battle of Katzbach was fought on 26 August 1813, the same day as Napoleon was engaged by the Army of Bohemia at Dresden. Marshal Macdonald was advancing eastward against Blücher’s 39,000 Prussians and 47,000 Russians with a force of around 80,000. Macdonald made the error of widely deploying his columns, passing them over the flooded Neisse River, and advancing up a plateau piecemeal. Blücher engaged and defeated each column separately and inflicted a major defeat on Macdonald. The French lost an estimated 12,000 casualties and 18,000 prisoners. The Army of Silesia, under Blücher, suffered around 5,000 casualties. This allied victory, plus that of Gross-Beeren, fought three days earlier, more than offset Napoleon’s victory at Dresden.

  KELLERMAN, FRANÇOIS CHRISTOPHE, DUC DE VALMY, MARÉCHAL D’EMPIRE (1735–1820). Kellerman was born in Strasbourg on 28 May 1735. He died in Paris on 13 September 1820. In 1752 Kellerman joined the Lowendahl Regiment. In 1753 he was an ensign and in 1756 a lieutenant. Kellerman served through the Seven Years’ War and by 1769 was a captain of hussars. On 9 March 1788 Kellerman was promoted to maréchal de camp (major general). He rose to lieutenant general on 20 March 1792. Kellerman won the battle of Valmy on 20 September 1792 and is credited with saving revolutionary France from the Prussian invasion. Kellerman continued his military career until 10 September 1793 when, because of his noble origins, he was destitute and broke from the ranks. Kellerman was arrested and imprisoned in Abbaye on 18 October, but later restored to his rank and functions when common sense began returning to Paris. By 1797 Kellerman no longer served in the field. On 24 December 1799 he became a senator and on 19 May 1804 he became both president of the Senate and maréchal d’Empire. Kellerman continued in various administrative military duties, but never again on campaign.

  KELLERMAN, FRANÇOIS ÉTIENNE, COMTE, MARQUIS, DUC DE VALMY (1770-1835). Son of François-Étienne Christophe, he was born in Metz on 4 August 1770. Kellerman entered the military on 14 August 1785 as a sous-lieutenant. On 12 October 1793 he was suspended from his duties along with his father. Kellerman was arrested for having written his father while he was imprisoned, but was soon released. In 1796 Kellerman was in Italy and served under Masséna. On 21 March 1797 he carried captured flags to the Directory under Napoleon’s orders. Kellerman was promoted to général de brigade on 28 May 1797.

  During the battle of Marengo, in June 1800, on his own initiative Kellerman launched and led the cavalry charge that won the battle for Napoleon. On 5 June 1800 Kellerman was promoted to général de division. Kellerman served under Bernadotte in the 1805 campaign and commanded the army cavalry reserve in 1806. In 1807 he went into Portugal under Junot and continued to serve in Spain until 1811, when he was recalled to France. Kellerman did not join the Russian campaign. In 1813 he rejoined the Grande Armée in Germany, fighting at Lützen, Bautzen, Dresden and Leipzig. Kellerman continued to serve through 1814 and during the First Restoration continued in military service. During the Hundred Days Kellerman joined Napoleon and was wounded at Waterloo. Kellerman was placed on inactive duty in August 1817 upon the death of his father. On 12 September 1820, he was given his father’s title and made a peer of France. In 1830 Kellerman was one of the five peers who voted for the execution of Charles X. He died in Paris on 2 June 1835.

  KNIGHTS OF MALTA. The Knights of Malta, officially known as the Knights of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem, were established in 1085 as a community of monks responsible for looking after the sick at the Hospital of St. John in Jerusalem. They eventually became a military order, fighting the Muslims in the Holy Land and guarding pilgrimage routes. The knights were formed exclusively from members of noble families. The order grew extremely wealthy from its membership and later from the spoils of their privateering.

  In 1530, after being ejected from Rhodes in 1522, the knights
arrived in Malta. Holy Roman Emperor Charles V offered them Malta or Tripoli as a new base. They chose Malta and remained there for 268 years, building its defenses and its commercial industry.

  The order was ruled by a grand master who answered only to the pope. The membership was sworn to celibacy, poverty and obedience, though few conformed in later years.

  The Great Siege of Malta occurred in 1565 and was soon followed by the crucial battle of Lepanto in 1571. These two engagements stopped the Ottoman Empire in the Mediterranean. The Ottomans defeated, the order gradually grew complacent and corrupt, spending most of its time capturing Muslim merchant ships.

  The last grand master before the French invasion in 1798, de Rohan, had reestablished much of what had been lost in the way of order and discipline in the Order. When he died the French knights disagreed as to the selection of his successor and in 1797 a minority elected Ferdinand Hompesch. Corruption and discontent returned, allowing Napoleon to take Malta by treachery in June 1798. Napoleon and the main army then sailed off for Egypt, leaving behind a garrison and orders to begin the process of converting the islanders into Frenchmen. A revolt erupted on 2 September 1798 at about the same time that the British fleet blockaded the island. The British eventually landed and possession of Malta passed to Britain. The Treaty of Amiens provided for the restoration of the island to the Order of St. John, much to the dismay of the Maltese population. The Maltese protested and for its own strategic reasons Britain chose to retain possession of the island, subject to certain conditions incorporated in a Declaration of Rights between it and the people of Malta. The British refused to evacuate the island, ignoring the requirements of the Treaty of Amiens, because the French refused to evacuate Hanover, or was it the other way round? History awaits resolution of that particular issue. British suzerainty was formally established in 1814 by the Treaty of Paris. In an odd twist, the French occupation of Malta gravely offended Czar Paul I, who was the grand master of the order at the time of the French invasion, but Czar Alexander I, who inherited that position, took no offense at the British occupying and holding the island.