The Soldier and the State

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by Samuel P Huntington


  2. Morgenthau’s views are expressed in Politics Among Nations (New York, 1948), In Defense of the National Interest (New York, 1951), and “Another ‘Great Debate’: The National Interest of the United States,” American Political Science Review, XLVI (December 1952), 961–988. For opposing views, see Frank Tannenbaum, “The Balance of Power versus the Coordinate State,” Political Science Quarterly, LXVII (June 1952), 173–197, and T. I. Cook and Malcolm Moos, “The American Idea of International Interest,” Amer. Pol. Sci. Review, XLVII (March 1953), 28–44.

  3. See, for example, Hanson Baldwin, “Military in Politics,” New York Times, Apr. 1, 1952, p. 22, Apr. 2, 1952, p. 20; Senator Mike Mansfield, “The Role of the Military in American Foreign Policy,” Cong. Record, Cl (Feb. 21, 1955, daily ed.), A-1091-A-1093.

  4. Hanson Baldwin, “What’s Wrong With the Regulars?” Saturday Evening Post, CCXXVI (Oct. 31, 1953), 19ff., “The Problem of Army Morale,” New York Times Magazine, Dec. 5, 1954, pp. 9ff., and his regular column in the Times; Department of Defense, Press Release, Dec. 3, 1953, “Final Report — Ad Hoc Committee on the Future of Military Service as a Career that will Attract and Retain Capable Career Personnel” (Womble Committee Report); New York Times, Apr. 19, 1954, p. 22; H. W. Blakeley, “Esprit de What? Our Army and Morale,” The Reporter, XI (Sept. 23, 1954), 35–37; D. J. Carrison, “Our Vanishing Military Profession,” American Mercury, LXXVII (November 1953), 77–81.

  INDEX

  Acheson, Dean, 377–378, 385, 387

  Adams, Brooks, 224, 270, 272

  Adams, Henry, 270, 465

  Adams, John, 194

  Adams, John Quincy, 147, 453

  Adjutants General Association, 174

  Administrative budgetary reductions, 423–424

  Administrative-fiscal function, Department of Defense, 428, 437–440

  Adolphus, Gustavus, 21, 26

  Advancement, purchase, birth, and politics, 23–24; professional standard for in Prussia, 45; France, 45–46; England, 46–48; Army and Navy (U.S.), 206–207, 297, 406

  Ageton, Rear Admiral Arthur A., 360 fn.

  Ainsworth, Adjutant General Fred, 298

  Air Force, congressional interest in expansion, 408, 411–412, 425, 426; cutback controversy, 421; vertical system of organization, 429 fn., 440, 444–446

  Air Force Association, 366

  Air Force Organization Act of 1951, 429 fn.

  Air National Guard, 191

  Aircraft Industries Association, 366

  Alger, Russell Alexander, 210

  Amalgamation, Jacksonian principle of, 204

  American militarism, roots of, 193–194

  American Military Enlightenment, 217–221

  American Ordnance Association, 366

  American society, image in the military mind, 266; military influence in, 354–373

  Angell, Norman, 258; The Great Illusion, 279

  Annapolis. See United States Naval Academy

  Annapolis Postgraduate School, 295 fn.

  Anticommunist policy, 394, 396–397

  Appropriations. See Military appropriations

  Araki, General (Japan), 127, 129, 132, 134

  Arbitration, view of the military, 264

  Archer, Gleason L., The History of Radio to 1926, 363 fn.

  Aristocracy, in conflict with democracy, 33–34; identified with military control, 81–82

  Aristocratic institutions, in eighteenth-century military affairs, 20–28

  Aristocrats, in Prussian officer corps, 39–40, 103; in France, 42; in England, 43

  Armed Forces Chemical Association,

  Armed Forces Communications Association, 365

  Armstrong, John, 208

  Army (U.S.), staff organization, 200; seniority system, 206–207; a lateral entry into officer corps, 206–207; coordinate organization, 208–211; prevalence of Southerners, 213; years of isolation and rejection, 226–229; reform movement, 230–236; organizational problem, 247; subordination to civil power, 261; promotion system, 297; presidential favoring of, 420; vertical system, 429 fn.; views on unification, 432–433; one of four great pillars of society, 465. See also Defense, Department of; Military; Officer Corps; Professionalism and War Department

  Army and Navy Chronicle, 207, 219

  Army Appropriation Act of 1867, 182

  Army Industrial College, 295 fn.

  Army-McCarthy hearings, 460

  Army Navy Munitions Board, 338, 339

  Army Service Forces, 339

  Army Services of Supply, 339

  Army War College, 237

  Arsenal, The (S.C.), 219

  Articles of Confederation, 168

  Artillery officers, training of, 25

  Artillery School (Fort Monroe, Va.), 217, 236

  Atlantic Charter, 331, 334

  Atomic energy, 434

  Atomic scientists, discontent over policy, 390–391

  Austria, Anschluss, 115

  Authority, meaning of, 86

  Baker, Newton D., 298, 299

  Baldwin, Hanson, 335, 386, 460

  Baltimore Sun, 144

  Beck, General Ludwig, 114 fn., 115, 119, 121

  Belknap, William W., 54, 210

  Benton, Thomas Hart, 183

  Berlin airlift, 383

  Bernhardi, General Friedrich von, 100, 105, 224

  Berthier, Louis Alexandre, 51, 52

  Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald von, 107

  Beukema, Colonel Herman, 296

  Beveridge, Albert J., 270

  Bigart, Homer, 390

  Bismarck, Prince Otto von, 70, 103, 104

  Black Dragon Society, 137

  Black Ocean Society, 137

  Blackstone, Sir William, 165

  Blank, Theodor, 123

  Bliss, Tasker H., 233, 235, 237

  Blomberg, Werner von, 117, 119, 120

  Blomberg-Fritsch Crisis, 120

  Bock, Fedor von, 121

  Bonner, Herbert C., 407

  Boorstin, Daniel J., 458

  Bourcet, Pierre Joseph, 26

  Bourgeois, in officer corps, 22, 39, 40

  Bourne, Randolph, 148

  Bradley, General Omar N., 362, 377, 417; Veterans Administration director, 358, 361; professional view in Joint Chiefs of Staff, 382, 396, 399; political implementation of Truman policies, 386, 398; attitude on Korean War, 387; as chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff, 436; blocked as advisor to Forrestal, 447 fn.; attitude on a staff for Secretary of Defense, 451 fn.

  Bragdon, Brigadier General John S., 358 fn.

  Brauchitsch, Walther von, 117, 121, 122

  Breckinridge, Henry, 144

  Brest (France), naval schools, 42, 43

  Bright, John, 223

  Britain. See England and Great Britain

  British Committee of Imperial Defense, 308, 337

  Brown, General Jacob, 207

  Bruce, David K. E., 377

  Brüning, Heinrich, 113

  B-36 controversy, 417, 419

  Budget, Bureau of the, 439

  Budget, military appropriations of, 407–412; administrative reductions, 423–424; congressional increases, 424–427

  Budget Advisory Committee (McNarney Board), 445

  Budget and Accounting Act of 1921, 414, 416

  Budgetary authority, of Secretary of Defense, 431, 445–448

  Budgetary pluralism, 423–427

  Bullard, General Robert Lee, 299

  Bureaucratic profession, officer corps as, 10, 16–17

  Burke, Admiral Arleigh A., 395

  Burke, Edmund, 93 fn., 458

  Burns, Major J. H., 312

  Burnside, General Ambrose E., 181

  Bush, Vannevar, 451 fn.

  Bushido, Japanese code of, 124, 125

  Business, military rapprochement with, 361–367; influence in Eisenhower’s administration, 392–393

  Business liberalism, 373

  Business manager, Secretary of Defense as, 442–444

  Business pacifism, dominance of, 222
–226; sources of, 223–224

  Business-reform hostility, to military professionalism, 289–290

  Byrnes, James F., 322, 341, 342, 377, 380

  Calhoun, John C., 147, 148, 208, 368, 453, 458; administrative reforms and military policies, 214–217; conservative tradition of, 270; concurrent majority concept, 403

  Campbell, Lieutenant-General Levin H., 366 fn.

  Capitalism, virtues in, 458

  Caprivi, Leo von, 104

  Captain’s servant (English navy), 23, 43

  Cardwell, Lord Edward, 47

  Carleton, Sir Guy, 143

  Carnegie, Andrew, 223, 226, 264, 292

  Carney, Admiral Robert B., 396, 398

  Carter, General William H., 233

  Cass, Lewis, 158 fn., 208

  Central defense organization and military services, 430–431

  Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 434

  Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff, 436–437

  Chase, Stuart, 292

  Chicago Tribune, 460

  Chief of Staff, office of, 252–253. See also Joint Chiefs of Staff China, in Cold War, 345, 397

  Choshu, Japanese clan, 135

  Churchill, Winston, 433 fn.

  Citadel, The (S.C.), 219

  Citizen-Soldier, 284; National Guard identifies itself with, 173

  Civil government, military participation in, 355–361

  Civil War, 171, 181, 212–213

  Civilian control, subjective and objective, 80–85; equilibrium between power and ideology, 94–96; in Germany, 99, 101–103; absence in Constitution, 163–164; Framers’ concept of, 164–169; effectiveness hindered by separation of powers, 177–179; British and American systems contrasted, 328–329; World War II military attitude toward, 335–336

  Civilian ethics, and the military, 89–90, 309–310

  Civil-military relations, and national security, 1–3; functional and societal imperatives, 2–3; a modern problem, 19–20; two levels, 85–86; patterns of, 96–97; executive, 186–189; in total war, 315–317; departmental structure of, 428–455 passim Clapp, Gordon R., 376

  Clark, Grenville, 271 fn.

  Clark, General Mark, 360 fn., 390

  Clausewitz, Karl von, 31, 63, 68, 73, 151, 235, 236, 255, 307, 372, 388; Vom Kriege, 55–58

  Clay, Henry, 453

  Clay, General Lucius, 322, 369, 378

  Clifford, Clark, 376

  Cobden, Richard, 223

  Cold War, shift of foreign policy from diplomacy to operation, 345; military participation in civil governments because of, 359–361; effect on security requirements, 456–457

  Collins, General J. Lawton, 451 fn. Combined Chiefs of Staff, 318

  Commander-in-Chief clause, United States Constitution, 178–189, 184

  Commercialism, military’s view on spirit of, 267–268

  Commitments, military’s view on, 68

  Committee of Three, 320 fn. Committee on the Conduct of the War (Civil War), 181, 183, 325

  Competence, of eighteenth-century officers corps, 26–27

  Competence and esprit, 53–54

  Comptroller (Department of Defense), 431, 432, 437–440, 452

  Congress (U.S.), powers with respect to military affairs, 178–180, 400–427; post-Civil War military policy, 228; and the military, 324–325, 400–427, 461; influence of Eisenhower’s prestige on, 372–373; versus the President on military functions and powers, 400–427; access of military chiefs to, 415–418; problem of authority to require military expenditures, 426–427

  Congressional Committees, policy and administrative roles of, 403–407

  Conjoint positions, military occupancy of, 355–357

  Conservatism, compared with professional military ethic, 93–94; in United States, 146–147; of Truman foreign policy, 376; of defense policy, 378–382; increase regarding military matters, 456–466; and security, 463–464

  Constitution (U.S.), military clauses, 163–170; division of authority, 177–178; separation of powers and functions, 400–403; on veto problem, 427

  Construction and Repair, Bureau of, 413

  Containment policy, 379

  Controlled Materials Plan, 339

  Coolidge, Charles A., 377

  Coordinate organization, army, 208–211

  Corporateness, a characteristic of a profession, 10; of officership, 16–18

  Corwin, Edward S., 179

  Croly, Herbert, Neo-Hamiltonianism and reforming tendencies of, 270; New Republic and The Promise of American Life, 272

  Crommelin, Captain Henry, 353

  Cromwell, Oliver, 21, 26

  Crosby, Ernest, 292

  Crowell, Benedict, 299 fn., 300

  Crowinshield, Benjamin, 201

  Czechoslovakia, 115

  Daniels, Josephus, 157, 250–251, 263, 294, 303

  Dartmouth (England) training ship at, 44

  Davis, General George B., 264

  Davis, Jefferson, 210

  Defense, Department of, relations with business, 362, 364, 365; reorganizations, 375, 406, 422–423; unity with Eisenhower administration, 392; liberalism in, 393–397; organizational problems of postwar decade, 428–432; Joint Chiefs of Staff role, 432–437; Comptroller the superego of, 437–440; General Counsel’s office, 439; role of the Secretary, 440–448; needs of the OSD, 448–455

  Defense conservatism, under Truman, 378–382

  Defense industry, growth and identification with the military attitude, 364–366

  Defense liberalism under Eisenhower, 393–397

  Defense Management Committee, 439, 443, 444

  Defense policy, effect of separation of powers on, 400–427. See also Military security Democracy, conflict with aristocracy, 33–34; civilian control identified with, 82; and militarism, 260–261

  Democratic ideals, factor in growth of professionalism, 33–34

  Democratic Party, essentially domestic interests of, 382–383; attack on Joint Chiefs of Staff, 460

  Denfeld, Admiral Louis E., 416

  Dewey, Admiral George, 161, 183

  Dewey, John, 311, 458

  Dick Act (1903, 1908), 171, 176

  Dienbienphu, 396

  Doolittle Board, civilianizing of military service, 460

  Douglas, Lewis W., 378

  Draper, William H., 377

  Dulles, Allen, 377

  Dulles, John Foster, 378; on Joint Chiefs of Staff role in politics, 386; more active anti-communist policy, 396; spokesman on defense matters, 398; article in Foreign Affairs, 398

  Durbin, E. F. M., 148

  Earle, Edward Mead, Makers of Modern Strategy, 128 fn.

  Eberstadt, Ferdinand, 337; chairman of ANMB, 339; on WPB, 340, 341; quoted on military budget control, 437

  Ebert, Friedrich, 109, 112

  École d’Application d’État Major, 49

  École Militaire, 24–25

  École Militaire Supérieure, 49

  École Polytechnique, 42, 43, 49, 197

  Economic liberalism, a source of business pacifism, 223

  Economic mobilization, civil-military relations in, 337–342; and JCS, 435

  Economist, on Minister of Defense, 441–442

  Education, nobles and technicians, 24–25; requirements for entry into officer corps in Prussia, 39–41; in France, 42–43; in England, 44, 43 fn.; advanced in Prussia, 48–49; in France, 49; in England, 49–50; engineering school at West Point, 198–199; military’s attitude toward, 311. See also United States Military Academy, United States Naval Academy

  Eisenhower, Dwight David, 161, 162, 323; prestige and civilian activity, 367–373; in Truman administration, 377, 378; effect of Korean War on election of, 391; and Congress, 422–423; consulted by Forrestal, 447 fn.

  Eisenhower Administration, military officers in, 358, 360; JCS in, 375, 391–399; Air Force cuts under, 412; attempts to forestall congressional budgetary increases, 425

  Eliot, T. S., 458

  Endicott, William C., 210

  Engineer
s, Corps of, 182, 198, 247–248, 413

  Engineers, training of, 25

  England, eighteenth-century aristocratic military institutions, 22–28; advancement, 23; education, 24; staff, 26; ineptness, 27; growth of professionalism, 33, 36; conscription, 38; emergence of professional institutions, 43–44; professional advancement, 46–48; staff organization, 52–53; professional competence and esprit, 53. See also Great Britain

  English Cabinet Secretariat, 447

  Enlisted corps, 17–18

  Expertise, a characteristic of a profession, 8–9; of officership, 11–14

  Extirpation, U.S. policy of, 155–156

  Fair Deal, 376

  Falkenhayn, Erich von, 106

  Fascism, 91–92

  Federal Convention, 165–166

  Federal German Republic, 123–124

  Federalism, 146, 194–195

  Federalist, The, 178

  Fellers, Bonner, 369

  Ferguson, Homer, 372

  Field, David Dudley, 258

  Finletter, Thomas K., 377, 451 fn.

  First Class Volunteers, 43

  Fiske, Admiral Bradley, 183, 232, 233, 267, 250

  Fiske, John, 226; Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy, 222

  Fitzhugh, George, 147

  Florida War (1842), 211

  Foertsch, Colonel Hermann, The Art of Modern Warfare, 114

  Foreign policy, military prescription for, 305, 306; military requirements of, 345; JCS implementation of, 385–387; liberalism under Eisenhower, 393–397

  Formosa policy, 383, 399

  Forrestal, James V., 302, 321, 365; influence in Truman administration, 377–380; on organization of Department of Defense, 431 fn., 434, 436, 438, 439; policy strategist role, 443–447, on need of staff for Secretary, 449; caliber of, 453; on nonpolitical qualification for Secretary,

 

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