The Soldier and the State
Page 64
2. Morgenthau’s views are expressed in Politics Among Nations (New York, 1948), In Defense of the National Interest (New York, 1951), and “Another ‘Great Debate’: The National Interest of the United States,” American Political Science Review, XLVI (December 1952), 961–988. For opposing views, see Frank Tannenbaum, “The Balance of Power versus the Coordinate State,” Political Science Quarterly, LXVII (June 1952), 173–197, and T. I. Cook and Malcolm Moos, “The American Idea of International Interest,” Amer. Pol. Sci. Review, XLVII (March 1953), 28–44.
3. See, for example, Hanson Baldwin, “Military in Politics,” New York Times, Apr. 1, 1952, p. 22, Apr. 2, 1952, p. 20; Senator Mike Mansfield, “The Role of the Military in American Foreign Policy,” Cong. Record, Cl (Feb. 21, 1955, daily ed.), A-1091-A-1093.
4. Hanson Baldwin, “What’s Wrong With the Regulars?” Saturday Evening Post, CCXXVI (Oct. 31, 1953), 19ff., “The Problem of Army Morale,” New York Times Magazine, Dec. 5, 1954, pp. 9ff., and his regular column in the Times; Department of Defense, Press Release, Dec. 3, 1953, “Final Report — Ad Hoc Committee on the Future of Military Service as a Career that will Attract and Retain Capable Career Personnel” (Womble Committee Report); New York Times, Apr. 19, 1954, p. 22; H. W. Blakeley, “Esprit de What? Our Army and Morale,” The Reporter, XI (Sept. 23, 1954), 35–37; D. J. Carrison, “Our Vanishing Military Profession,” American Mercury, LXXVII (November 1953), 77–81.
INDEX
Acheson, Dean, 377–378, 385, 387
Adams, Brooks, 224, 270, 272
Adams, Henry, 270, 465
Adams, John, 194
Adams, John Quincy, 147, 453
Adjutants General Association, 174
Administrative budgetary reductions, 423–424
Administrative-fiscal function, Department of Defense, 428, 437–440
Adolphus, Gustavus, 21, 26
Advancement, purchase, birth, and politics, 23–24; professional standard for in Prussia, 45; France, 45–46; England, 46–48; Army and Navy (U.S.), 206–207, 297, 406
Ageton, Rear Admiral Arthur A., 360 fn.
Ainsworth, Adjutant General Fred, 298
Air Force, congressional interest in expansion, 408, 411–412, 425, 426; cutback controversy, 421; vertical system of organization, 429 fn., 440, 444–446
Air Force Association, 366
Air Force Organization Act of 1951, 429 fn.
Air National Guard, 191
Aircraft Industries Association, 366
Alger, Russell Alexander, 210
Amalgamation, Jacksonian principle of, 204
American militarism, roots of, 193–194
American Military Enlightenment, 217–221
American Ordnance Association, 366
American society, image in the military mind, 266; military influence in, 354–373
Angell, Norman, 258; The Great Illusion, 279
Annapolis. See United States Naval Academy
Annapolis Postgraduate School, 295 fn.
Anticommunist policy, 394, 396–397
Appropriations. See Military appropriations
Araki, General (Japan), 127, 129, 132, 134
Arbitration, view of the military, 264
Archer, Gleason L., The History of Radio to 1926, 363 fn.
Aristocracy, in conflict with democracy, 33–34; identified with military control, 81–82
Aristocratic institutions, in eighteenth-century military affairs, 20–28
Aristocrats, in Prussian officer corps, 39–40, 103; in France, 42; in England, 43
Armed Forces Chemical Association,
Armed Forces Communications Association, 365
Armstrong, John, 208
Army (U.S.), staff organization, 200; seniority system, 206–207; a lateral entry into officer corps, 206–207; coordinate organization, 208–211; prevalence of Southerners, 213; years of isolation and rejection, 226–229; reform movement, 230–236; organizational problem, 247; subordination to civil power, 261; promotion system, 297; presidential favoring of, 420; vertical system, 429 fn.; views on unification, 432–433; one of four great pillars of society, 465. See also Defense, Department of; Military; Officer Corps; Professionalism and War Department
Army and Navy Chronicle, 207, 219
Army Appropriation Act of 1867, 182
Army Industrial College, 295 fn.
Army-McCarthy hearings, 460
Army Navy Munitions Board, 338, 339
Army Service Forces, 339
Army Services of Supply, 339
Army War College, 237
Arsenal, The (S.C.), 219
Articles of Confederation, 168
Artillery officers, training of, 25
Artillery School (Fort Monroe, Va.), 217, 236
Atlantic Charter, 331, 334
Atomic energy, 434
Atomic scientists, discontent over policy, 390–391
Austria, Anschluss, 115
Authority, meaning of, 86
Baker, Newton D., 298, 299
Baldwin, Hanson, 335, 386, 460
Baltimore Sun, 144
Beck, General Ludwig, 114 fn., 115, 119, 121
Belknap, William W., 54, 210
Benton, Thomas Hart, 183
Berlin airlift, 383
Bernhardi, General Friedrich von, 100, 105, 224
Berthier, Louis Alexandre, 51, 52
Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald von, 107
Beukema, Colonel Herman, 296
Beveridge, Albert J., 270
Bigart, Homer, 390
Bismarck, Prince Otto von, 70, 103, 104
Black Dragon Society, 137
Black Ocean Society, 137
Blackstone, Sir William, 165
Blank, Theodor, 123
Bliss, Tasker H., 233, 235, 237
Blomberg, Werner von, 117, 119, 120
Blomberg-Fritsch Crisis, 120
Bock, Fedor von, 121
Bonner, Herbert C., 407
Boorstin, Daniel J., 458
Bourcet, Pierre Joseph, 26
Bourgeois, in officer corps, 22, 39, 40
Bourne, Randolph, 148
Bradley, General Omar N., 362, 377, 417; Veterans Administration director, 358, 361; professional view in Joint Chiefs of Staff, 382, 396, 399; political implementation of Truman policies, 386, 398; attitude on Korean War, 387; as chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff, 436; blocked as advisor to Forrestal, 447 fn.; attitude on a staff for Secretary of Defense, 451 fn.
Bragdon, Brigadier General John S., 358 fn.
Brauchitsch, Walther von, 117, 121, 122
Breckinridge, Henry, 144
Brest (France), naval schools, 42, 43
Bright, John, 223
Britain. See England and Great Britain
British Committee of Imperial Defense, 308, 337
Brown, General Jacob, 207
Bruce, David K. E., 377
Brüning, Heinrich, 113
B-36 controversy, 417, 419
Budget, Bureau of the, 439
Budget, military appropriations of, 407–412; administrative reductions, 423–424; congressional increases, 424–427
Budget Advisory Committee (McNarney Board), 445
Budget and Accounting Act of 1921, 414, 416
Budgetary authority, of Secretary of Defense, 431, 445–448
Budgetary pluralism, 423–427
Bullard, General Robert Lee, 299
Bureaucratic profession, officer corps as, 10, 16–17
Burke, Admiral Arleigh A., 395
Burke, Edmund, 93 fn., 458
Burns, Major J. H., 312
Burnside, General Ambrose E., 181
Bush, Vannevar, 451 fn.
Bushido, Japanese code of, 124, 125
Business, military rapprochement with, 361–367; influence in Eisenhower’s administration, 392–393
Business liberalism, 373
Business manager, Secretary of Defense as, 442–444
Business pacifism, dominance of, 222
–226; sources of, 223–224
Business-reform hostility, to military professionalism, 289–290
Byrnes, James F., 322, 341, 342, 377, 380
Calhoun, John C., 147, 148, 208, 368, 453, 458; administrative reforms and military policies, 214–217; conservative tradition of, 270; concurrent majority concept, 403
Campbell, Lieutenant-General Levin H., 366 fn.
Capitalism, virtues in, 458
Caprivi, Leo von, 104
Captain’s servant (English navy), 23, 43
Cardwell, Lord Edward, 47
Carleton, Sir Guy, 143
Carnegie, Andrew, 223, 226, 264, 292
Carney, Admiral Robert B., 396, 398
Carter, General William H., 233
Cass, Lewis, 158 fn., 208
Central defense organization and military services, 430–431
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 434
Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff, 436–437
Chase, Stuart, 292
Chicago Tribune, 460
Chief of Staff, office of, 252–253. See also Joint Chiefs of Staff China, in Cold War, 345, 397
Choshu, Japanese clan, 135
Churchill, Winston, 433 fn.
Citadel, The (S.C.), 219
Citizen-Soldier, 284; National Guard identifies itself with, 173
Civil government, military participation in, 355–361
Civil War, 171, 181, 212–213
Civilian control, subjective and objective, 80–85; equilibrium between power and ideology, 94–96; in Germany, 99, 101–103; absence in Constitution, 163–164; Framers’ concept of, 164–169; effectiveness hindered by separation of powers, 177–179; British and American systems contrasted, 328–329; World War II military attitude toward, 335–336
Civilian ethics, and the military, 89–90, 309–310
Civil-military relations, and national security, 1–3; functional and societal imperatives, 2–3; a modern problem, 19–20; two levels, 85–86; patterns of, 96–97; executive, 186–189; in total war, 315–317; departmental structure of, 428–455 passim Clapp, Gordon R., 376
Clark, Grenville, 271 fn.
Clark, General Mark, 360 fn., 390
Clausewitz, Karl von, 31, 63, 68, 73, 151, 235, 236, 255, 307, 372, 388; Vom Kriege, 55–58
Clay, Henry, 453
Clay, General Lucius, 322, 369, 378
Clifford, Clark, 376
Cobden, Richard, 223
Cold War, shift of foreign policy from diplomacy to operation, 345; military participation in civil governments because of, 359–361; effect on security requirements, 456–457
Collins, General J. Lawton, 451 fn. Combined Chiefs of Staff, 318
Commander-in-Chief clause, United States Constitution, 178–189, 184
Commercialism, military’s view on spirit of, 267–268
Commitments, military’s view on, 68
Committee of Three, 320 fn. Committee on the Conduct of the War (Civil War), 181, 183, 325
Competence, of eighteenth-century officers corps, 26–27
Competence and esprit, 53–54
Comptroller (Department of Defense), 431, 432, 437–440, 452
Congress (U.S.), powers with respect to military affairs, 178–180, 400–427; post-Civil War military policy, 228; and the military, 324–325, 400–427, 461; influence of Eisenhower’s prestige on, 372–373; versus the President on military functions and powers, 400–427; access of military chiefs to, 415–418; problem of authority to require military expenditures, 426–427
Congressional Committees, policy and administrative roles of, 403–407
Conjoint positions, military occupancy of, 355–357
Conservatism, compared with professional military ethic, 93–94; in United States, 146–147; of Truman foreign policy, 376; of defense policy, 378–382; increase regarding military matters, 456–466; and security, 463–464
Constitution (U.S.), military clauses, 163–170; division of authority, 177–178; separation of powers and functions, 400–403; on veto problem, 427
Construction and Repair, Bureau of, 413
Containment policy, 379
Controlled Materials Plan, 339
Coolidge, Charles A., 377
Coordinate organization, army, 208–211
Corporateness, a characteristic of a profession, 10; of officership, 16–18
Corwin, Edward S., 179
Croly, Herbert, Neo-Hamiltonianism and reforming tendencies of, 270; New Republic and The Promise of American Life, 272
Crommelin, Captain Henry, 353
Cromwell, Oliver, 21, 26
Crosby, Ernest, 292
Crowell, Benedict, 299 fn., 300
Crowinshield, Benjamin, 201
Czechoslovakia, 115
Daniels, Josephus, 157, 250–251, 263, 294, 303
Dartmouth (England) training ship at, 44
Davis, General George B., 264
Davis, Jefferson, 210
Defense, Department of, relations with business, 362, 364, 365; reorganizations, 375, 406, 422–423; unity with Eisenhower administration, 392; liberalism in, 393–397; organizational problems of postwar decade, 428–432; Joint Chiefs of Staff role, 432–437; Comptroller the superego of, 437–440; General Counsel’s office, 439; role of the Secretary, 440–448; needs of the OSD, 448–455
Defense conservatism, under Truman, 378–382
Defense industry, growth and identification with the military attitude, 364–366
Defense liberalism under Eisenhower, 393–397
Defense Management Committee, 439, 443, 444
Defense policy, effect of separation of powers on, 400–427. See also Military security Democracy, conflict with aristocracy, 33–34; civilian control identified with, 82; and militarism, 260–261
Democratic ideals, factor in growth of professionalism, 33–34
Democratic Party, essentially domestic interests of, 382–383; attack on Joint Chiefs of Staff, 460
Denfeld, Admiral Louis E., 416
Dewey, Admiral George, 161, 183
Dewey, John, 311, 458
Dick Act (1903, 1908), 171, 176
Dienbienphu, 396
Doolittle Board, civilianizing of military service, 460
Douglas, Lewis W., 378
Draper, William H., 377
Dulles, Allen, 377
Dulles, John Foster, 378; on Joint Chiefs of Staff role in politics, 386; more active anti-communist policy, 396; spokesman on defense matters, 398; article in Foreign Affairs, 398
Durbin, E. F. M., 148
Earle, Edward Mead, Makers of Modern Strategy, 128 fn.
Eberstadt, Ferdinand, 337; chairman of ANMB, 339; on WPB, 340, 341; quoted on military budget control, 437
Ebert, Friedrich, 109, 112
École d’Application d’État Major, 49
École Militaire, 24–25
École Militaire Supérieure, 49
École Polytechnique, 42, 43, 49, 197
Economic liberalism, a source of business pacifism, 223
Economic mobilization, civil-military relations in, 337–342; and JCS, 435
Economist, on Minister of Defense, 441–442
Education, nobles and technicians, 24–25; requirements for entry into officer corps in Prussia, 39–41; in France, 42–43; in England, 44, 43 fn.; advanced in Prussia, 48–49; in France, 49; in England, 49–50; engineering school at West Point, 198–199; military’s attitude toward, 311. See also United States Military Academy, United States Naval Academy
Eisenhower, Dwight David, 161, 162, 323; prestige and civilian activity, 367–373; in Truman administration, 377, 378; effect of Korean War on election of, 391; and Congress, 422–423; consulted by Forrestal, 447 fn.
Eisenhower Administration, military officers in, 358, 360; JCS in, 375, 391–399; Air Force cuts under, 412; attempts to forestall congressional budgetary increases, 425
Eliot, T. S., 458
Endicott, William C., 210
Engineer
s, Corps of, 182, 198, 247–248, 413
Engineers, training of, 25
England, eighteenth-century aristocratic military institutions, 22–28; advancement, 23; education, 24; staff, 26; ineptness, 27; growth of professionalism, 33, 36; conscription, 38; emergence of professional institutions, 43–44; professional advancement, 46–48; staff organization, 52–53; professional competence and esprit, 53. See also Great Britain
English Cabinet Secretariat, 447
Enlisted corps, 17–18
Expertise, a characteristic of a profession, 8–9; of officership, 11–14
Extirpation, U.S. policy of, 155–156
Fair Deal, 376
Falkenhayn, Erich von, 106
Fascism, 91–92
Federal Convention, 165–166
Federal German Republic, 123–124
Federalism, 146, 194–195
Federalist, The, 178
Fellers, Bonner, 369
Ferguson, Homer, 372
Field, David Dudley, 258
Finletter, Thomas K., 377, 451 fn.
First Class Volunteers, 43
Fiske, Admiral Bradley, 183, 232, 233, 267, 250
Fiske, John, 226; Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy, 222
Fitzhugh, George, 147
Florida War (1842), 211
Foertsch, Colonel Hermann, The Art of Modern Warfare, 114
Foreign policy, military prescription for, 305, 306; military requirements of, 345; JCS implementation of, 385–387; liberalism under Eisenhower, 393–397
Formosa policy, 383, 399
Forrestal, James V., 302, 321, 365; influence in Truman administration, 377–380; on organization of Department of Defense, 431 fn., 434, 436, 438, 439; policy strategist role, 443–447, on need of staff for Secretary, 449; caliber of, 453; on nonpolitical qualification for Secretary,