Chusan
Page 32
The Museum of the Border Regiment in Carlisle Castle, besides housing a number of fascinating artefacts brought home from Tinghae, is the inheritor of the records of the 55th Westmoreland Regiment (Carlisle MBR), including regimental songs, general orders and despatches, and translations of Chinese documents which have not survived elsewhere. (©Museum of the Border & King’s Own Royal Border Regiments, by kind permission).
The excellent Jardine Matheson Archives (JMA) in Cambridge University Library contain a mass of private letters to and from the company in Macao and Hong Kong and correspondents on Chusan. ‘Jardine Matheson: In-correspondence: unbound letters: Private, Chusan, 1837-1843’ are on microfilm reel 580 (JMA reel 580); ‘Jardine Matheson: in-correspondence, unbound letters: Chusan, 1840-1860’ are on microfilm reel 528 (JMA reel 528); ‘Alexander Matheson Private Letter Book, December 1844 to January 1846’ is at C6/4 (JMA C6/4) (©Matheson & Co. Ltd, by kind permission).
Last, but far from least, the Caird Library in the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, is now home to the invaluable Cree Journals (Cree). All material by kind permission of the owner and copyright holder, Henrietta Heawood. The Cree Journals (Exeter: Webb & Bower, 1981) are the source of the images on pages 62, 91 and 146, with kind permission of Richard Webb.
B. Secondary sources in Western languages.
Aldersey White, E. A Woman Pioneer in China: The Life of Mary Ann Aldersey. 1932.
Algernon, S. The Iniquities of the Opium Trade with China. 1838.
Allom, T. & Wright, G.N. The Chinese Empire Illustrated. 1988.
Bamfield, V. On The Strength: The Story of the British Army Wife. 1974
Baynham, H. From the Lower Deck: The Old Navy 1780-1840. 1969.
Bretschneider, E. History of European Botanical Discoveries in China. 1898.
Carnac Temple, Sir R. The Diaries of Streynsham Master, 1675-1680. 1911.
Carter, T. A Historical Record of the Twenty-Sixth, Cameronian Regiment. 1867.
Coates, P.D. The China Consuls. 1988.
Cook, H. The North Staffordshire Regiment. 1970.
Costin, W.C. Great Britain & China, 1833-1860. 1937.
Cox, E.H.M. Plant-Hunting in China. 1945.
Danicourt, E-J. Vie de Mgr. Danicourt de la Congregation de la Mission. 1889.
Eames, J.B. The English in China. 1909.
Elleman, B.A. Modern Chinese Warfare, 1795-1989. 2001.
Fay, P.W. The Opium War, 1840-42. 1975; ‘The Protestant Mission and the Opium War’ in Pacific Historical Review, 40:1971; ‘The French Catholic Mission in China’ in Modern Asian Stud., 4:1970.
Featherstone, D. Weapons & Equipment of the Victorian Soldier. 1978.
Frontier & Overseas Expeditions from India, vol.6. 1911.
Gardner, B. The East India Company: A History. 1971.
Graham, G. The China Station: War & Diplomacy, 1830-1860. 1978.
Gretton, Lt-Col. G. le M. Campaigns & History of the Royal Irish Regiment. 1911.
Harfield, A. British & Indian Armies on the China Coast, 1785-1985. 1990.
Headrick, D. The Tools of Empire: Technology & European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century. 1981.
Hibbert, C. The Dragon Wakes. 1970.
Hucker, C. A Dictionary of Official Titles in Imperial China. 1985.
Hummel. Eminent Chinese of the Ch’ing Period. 1943.
Johnston, S.H.F. The History of the Cameronians (Scottish Rifles) vol.1, 1689-1910. 1957.
Kendrick, Col. N.C.E. The Story of the Wiltshire Regiment. 1963.
King, F.H.H. Survey Our Empire! 1979.
Knollys, Col. H. The Life of General Sir Hope Grant, vol.2. 1894.
Kuo, P.C. A Critical Study of the First Anglo-Chinese War. 1935.
Lambert, A. The Last Sailing Battlefleet. 1991.
Lane-Poole, S. The Life of Sir Harry Parkes. 1894.
Leland, C.G. Pidgin-English Sing-Song. 1876.
Levien, M., ed. The Cree Journals. 1981.
Lloyd & Coulter. Medicine & The Navy, 1200-1900, vol.4. 1963.
Lloyd, C. The British Seaman. 1968.
Lovell, J. The Opium War. 2011.
Lovett, R. History of the London Missionary Society, 1795-1895. 1899.
Markham, G. Guns of the Empire. 1990.
McIlwain, J. HMS Trincomalee. 1994.
Moidrey, Père J. de. La Hierarchie Catholique en Chine… 1307-1914. 1914
Morrison, E.A. Memoirs of the Life and Labours of Robert Morrison. 1839.
Morse, H.B. Chronicle of the East India Co. Trading to China. 1926.
Moule, A.E. The Story of the Cheh-Kiang Mission of the Church Missionary Society. 1878.
Munn, C. ‘The Chusan Episode: Britain’s Occupation of a Chinese Island, 1840-46’ in Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, vol.25, no.1, Jan. 1997.
Musgrave, T. The Plant Hunters. 1998.
Noakes, G. A Historical Account of the Services of the 34th & 55th Regiments. 1875.
Patterson, Mjr. J. Camp & Quarters: Scenes and Impressions of Military Life. 1840.
Petre, F.L. The Royal Berkshire Regiment, vol.1. 1925.
Peyrefitte, A. The Collision of Two Civilisations. 1993.
Phillimore, A. The Life of Sir William Parker, vol.2. 1879.
Proudfoot, W.J. Biographical Memoir of James Dinwiddie, LLD. 1868.
Rait, R.S. The Life & Campaigns of Hugh, 1st Viscount Gough, vol.1. 1903.
Reason, J. The Witch of Ningbo. 1940.
Rennie, D.F. The British Arms in North China & Japan. 1864.
Schlyter, H. Karl Gützlaff als Missionär in China. 1946.
Shadwell, Lt-Gen. Life of Colin Campbell, Lord Clyde. 1881.
Singer, A. The Lion & the Dragon. 1992.
Smith, G. Physician & Friend: Alexander Grant FRCS. 1902.
Society for Promoting Female Education in the East. Female Agency Among the Heathen. 1850.
Strachan, H. Wellington’s Legacy: the reform of the British army, 1830-54. 1984; From Waterloo to Balaclava. 1985.
Trustram, M. Women of the Regiment. 1984.
Wakeman, F. Strangers at the Gate. 1966.
Waley, A. The Opium War through Chinese Eyes. 1958.
Walsh, F. A History of Hong Kong. 1997.
Wei Tsing-sing, L. La Politique Missionaire de la France en Chine, 1842-1856. 1957.
Werner, E.T.C. A Dictionary of Chinese Mythology. 1961.
Winton, J. Hurrah for the Life of a Sailor. 1977.
Worcester, G.R.G. ‘The Chinese War-Junk’ in The Mariner’s Mirror, 34. 1948.
C. Sources in Chinese.
Yapian Zhanzheng Dang’an Shiliao. Zhongguo Diyi Lishi Dang’anguan. Tianjin, 1992 (YPZZDASL).
Yapian Zhanzheng zai Zhoushan Shiliao Xuanbian. Zhejiang Renmin Chubanshe. 1992 (YPZZZZS).
Zhejiangsheng Dituce. Zhonghua Ditu Xueshe. 1999.
Huangqing Zhigong Tu. Qianlong 16 [1751], reprinted Peking, 1986.
Chouban Yiwu Shimo, Daoguang. Published 1856, reprinted in Jindai Zhongguo Lishi Congkan. Taibei, 1970 (CBYWSM).
Zhoushan Shizhi. Zhejiang Renmin Chubanshe. Hangzhou, 1992.
Zhoushan Haiyu Daojiao Zhi. Zhou Xike ed. Zhoushan, 1991.
‘Zhoushan Shizhi’ Bianxiu Shimo. Zhang Xinya ed. Zhejiang Renmin Chubanshe. Hangzhou,1994.
Zhoushanzhi. Ming Tianqi 6 [1626], reprinted by Chengwen Chubanshe. Taibei, 1983.
Guangxu Dinghai Tingzhi. Qing Guangxu 3 [1877], and Dinghai Xianzhi. Qing Guangxu 11 [1885], both reprinted as part of Zhongguo Difangzhi Jicheng. Shanghai Shudian, 1993. Besides containing the contemporary annals of Dinghai County, the reprint of the 1877 work contains an immensely useful 1920s map of Dinghai and its wharf district, by which landmarks from the 1840s can be pinpointed.
Qingji Zhiguanbiao. Wei Xiumei. Taibei, 1977.
Acknowledgements
My sincere thanks to Richard Morel, curator of the East India Company records at the British Library, for commenting on a draft of Chapter 1, and my apologies for not using his insights into the rivalrie
s between the New and Old Companies which coincided with the Company’s early trade at Chusan, simply because of the complexity of sculpting them into a narrative focusing upon the 1840s rather than the 1700s. Any inaccuracies in my depiction of the East India Company on Chusan are wholly my own; to Henrietta Heawood, for permission to use the invaluable Cree Journals, and Mike Spathaky for his help in tracing both them and Henrietta; to Richard Webb, of Webb & Bower, for permission to reproduce images from the published edition of The Cree Journals; to Malcolm Cherry for reading and commenting on a draft; to the British Library and the National Archives for permission to cite the materials forming the backbone of this work; to the Cadbury Research Library at Birmingham University; to the Council for World Mission; to Matheson & Co. Ltd for permission to use and cite the Jardine Matheson Archives; to the Hong Kong PRO for copies of the Urmston Correspondence; to Cornell’s Carl A. Kroch Library for providing copies of the Augustus Ward Loomis Papers before the author had even sent payment; to the Museum of the Border Regiment, Carlisle; to the National Army Museum, London; to the Royal United Services Institute for allowing access to their library; to Gary Kronk for information on the Great March Comet. Cheers to Jonathan Foster-Smith of Shine Design for his support and patience. Especial thanks to David Rees for sacrificing two perfectly good weekends (including a bank holiday that turned out to be rather less rainy than expected) to cast his discerning eye over the final typescript; and last but not least to my wife, Professor Becky, for her help, understanding and encouragement in the writing of this book.
Illustrations
1. ‘Vale of Ting-Hai, Chusan’ (1843) by Thomas Allom, after Cpt. Stoddart.
2. ‘The South Gate of the City of Ting-Hai’ (1793) by William Alexander.
3. ‘A street in Tinghai, Chusan’ (1840) from The Cree Journals.
4. ‘Inside the Great Josshouse, Tinghai’ (1840) from The Cree Journals.
5. ‘The Fortress of Terror, Ting-Hai’ (1843) by Thomas Allom.
6. ‘Mrs Noble on her way to Ningpo’ (1840)from The Cree Journals.
7. ‘Foraging Party’ (1840) from The Cree Journals.
8. Statue to the three generals who died during the 1841 invasion, at the top of ‘49th Hill’ in Dinghai’s Opium War Relics Park (2012).
9. Buddhist monks processing into the Zuyin Temple, Dinghai (2001).
Nos. 3, 4, 6 & 7 © Webb & Bower; original watercolours © Henrietta Heawood; nos. 8 & 9 © L. D’Arcy-Brown.
Author’s Note
This book is the result of some twelve years of research and three trips to Chusan, and was put on hold and restarted time and again as other writing projects demanded my attention. It has gone through several radically different incarnations to reach its final form, and one dark episode in which a computer glitch erased all formatting and garbled many of my notes. From a scholarly point of view, there are as a result points in the text for which I have given only partial references, and occasionally no reference at all. Readers who would like to follow up on textual points for which I have not made a source clear are welcome to contact me through the publisher; I shall do my utmost to locate an exact reference from within my voluminous papers. References for this e-book edition group all the notes for any given paragraph under a single entry, to avoid the need for superscript throughout the text.
Note on Romanisation and Names
As will be apparent to readers with a knowledge of Chinese, the text uses an admixture of Romanisations for places and personal names — mostly pinyin for its near-global currency today and its fair approximation of Chinese sounds, but also Wade-Giles and the idiosyncratic spellings of contemporary sources, besides common Western usages such as Canton (for Guangzhou). There is, intentionally, little consistency in my choices, which were made depending upon their ubiquity in any given period, their familiarity to non-experts, and their orthographic elegance (or otherwise). I have used Tinghae and Chusan throughout the substantive chapters, since to use the pinyin would have led to ugly anachronisms. Alternative spellings which readers might encounter in other studies of the Opium War period have been included in the list of recurring characters, making it easier for non-Chinese speakers to recognise that, for example, the man whom I call Yuqian is the same man referred to by Fay as Yukien and by others as Yu-ch’ien.
Before the standardised pinyin of the 1950s, the name which is now written Dinghai was rendered in a variety of spellings by English speakers — Tinghai, Tinghaï, Ding-hae, Ting Hie, Ting-hae-heën (i.e. district), etc — of which Tinghae seems to have been the most commonly used. However spelt, it is pronounced like the English words ‘ding high’. The name dates back to 1687, and means ‘the seas calmed’. Chusan is now officially spelled Zhoushan. Its English spelling similarly varied widely — Cheuxan, Tcheou-shan, Cheuchan, Tchusan… — but by the nineteenth century Chusan was by far the most common. Chusan means ‘the island of boats’, probably a reference to its fishing fleet, though the name is also taken as a reference to its silhouette, said to resemble a junk (it would take a brave crew to sail a junk so unseaworthy looking). The island first appears in the centuries before Christ as Yongdong (i.e. ‘east of [Ningbo’s] Yong river’), was known as Wengshan (‘the sage’s island’) in the eighth century, and from 1073 to 1386 was renamed Changguo (‘making the nation prosperous’). Its present name seems to have been first recorded in 1169 (in Qiandao Siming Tujing).
Referenc es
(‘DG’ indicates dates during the Daoguang regnal era, in the Chinese ‘year/month/day’ format: DG20/6/8 for example is the 8th day of the 6th lunar month of the 20th year of the Daoguang emperor; ‘r’ (rùn) indicates an intercalary month.)
Prologue
1.
‘Tinghae’ see Note on Romanisation and Names.
2.
‘We… purposes’ BL Peel 40451 18/10/1845.
Chapter 1
1.
‘Making… Yangtze’ Zhoushan Shizhi p.377 notes that there are records of the Portuguese establishing themselves in the Chusan archipelago. Zheng Shungong’s A Mirror of Japan (1565) records that in 1526 a criminal named Zheng Liao ‘enticed the barbarians to engage in illicit trade at Shuangyugang’. By 1540 there are said to have been some 3,000 people there, trading in summer and returning to Macao to overwinter and with firearms enough to keep the Ming army at bay (Pan Jixing, Scientific Exchanges between China and the World p.162).
2.
A ‘factory’ was the name used at the time for a trading settlement which housed the Company’s ‘factors’, or agents: it was not a factory in the modern sense.
‘as early as 1683’ Zhoushan Shizhi p.201.
3.
‘And so… China’ BL IOR G/12/14, 23/11/1699. Morse’s Chronicle and the observations of the physician James Cunningham in Observations and Remarks provide background to this section.
4.
‘An acre… easy’ BL IOR G/12/6.
‘ship’s journal’ BL L/MAR/B/137B.
5.
‘King William’s birthday’ BL IOR G/12/14, Diary of Henry Rouse.
‘Having cut… bread’ BL IOR G/12/16, 22/10/1701.
6.
‘English Eating’ ibid.
7.
‘cultivating powerful contacts’ Diaries of Streynsham Master, 1675-1680, p.320.
‘I am sorry… people’ BL IOR G/12/14, 21/12/1700.
8.
‘severe punishment’ ibid.
‘beaten to death’ BL IOR G/12/14, 3/1/1701.
‘flew into a foaming rage’ ibid.
‘Thus much…’ BL IOR G/12/14, 21/12/1700.
9.
‘list of the conditions’ BL IOR G/12/14.
‘samshoo’ ibid. Henry Rouse notes that the Chinese complained about how drunk the sailors were.
‘2% tariff… ships’ ibid., 21/12/1700.
10.
‘£10,000 in gifts’ ibid.
‘Worse… goods’ BL IOR G/12/14, Diary of Henry Rouse.
‘
There is no faith…’ ibid., 13/1/1701.
11.
‘three quarters… broadcloth’ BL IOR G/12/14, 6/7/1701.
12.
‘Days of fraught talks… elderly mother’ ibid., 1/2/1702.
BL IOR G/12/14 sets out the expulsion of the King’s consul-general in detail.
‘having been scarce a day…’ ibid., p.62.
13.
‘the local merchants simply vanished’ BL IOR G/12/14, 4/9/1702.
14.
‘China is all trouble…’ ibid.
‘They will deliver… laugh at us’ Letter of 10/2/1703, in Morse, Chronicle p.120.
‘little short of a ransom demand’ BL IOR G/12/14, 22/11/1703.
15.
‘Catchpoole had often recommended…’ ibid., 21/12/1700.
Chapter 2
1.
‘In 1758 the Onslow…’ BL IOR G/12/14, 17/1/1758.
2.
The description of the China trade in these pages draws on Fay, The Opium War.
3.
The failed diplomacy and worsening relations between China and Britain from the 1790s to the outbreak of war have been written on extensively elsewhere and are simply sketched out here. This summary of the salient reasons for the war also draws on Peyrefitte’s The Collision of Two Civilisations and Fay’s The Opium War.
4.
‘The British government for its part…’ Lord Palmerston’s instructions on the eve of war reasserted his view that the Chinese were free to ban any article they pleased (FO17/40(130)).
5.
This section, besides citing primary accounts by men involved in the embassy, draws its background from Singer, The Lion and the Dragon and Peyrefitte, Collision.
6.
‘Soon they could scarcely manoeuvre… horizon’ BL Gower, p.70.
‘presently the decks…’ Staunton’s Authentic Account provides this and many of the observations informing this narrative; Barrow too provides a scientific eye on the proceedings.