by Roshen Dalal
Several texts throw further light on the Sama, among them many of the Brahmanas attached to the Sama, as well as Upanishads and later texts. Some of these are described in Chapter 2 of this book.
ATHARVA VEDA
The Atharva Veda is the fourth and last Vedic Samhita. This Veda is also known by other names. It is sometimes called the Brahma Veda, though this is a late name. Atharvan-Angirasa is an early name of the Atharva Veda, which occurs once in the text and several times in the Brahmanas. The term Atharvana (Veda) occurs in the Chhandogya Upanishad, and is earlier than the term Atharva Veda, which came to be used later. Bhrigvangirasah is another name of this Veda, from Bhrigu and Angirasa.
Some of the Rig Vedic hymns are repeated in the Atharva and, according to estimates, around one-seventh of the verses are the same as in the Rig. Around one-sixth of the text is in prose.
Atharva hymns include a number of different topics and can be prayers to deities, or incantations and spells. There are some beautiful prayers to Rig Vedic deities, as well as to others. Overall, the text deals with health, prosperity, and the daily concerns of people, and not with grand sacrifices. A major part of the text consists of songs and spells. Several of these deal with the healing of diseases and include detailed descriptions of the body, and it is therefore considered the first text in India containing aspects of medicine. Diseases are sometimes personified, and hymns are addressed to them, while in other cases, there are spells to banish demons considered responsible for ill-health. There are prayers to curative herbs, or to healing waters and fires, chants for health and long life and for harmony within the family. There are spells to win someone’s love, or for protection from demons and from people with evil intentions. There are hymns dedicated to the protection and blessing of kings, as well as hymns that are battle chants and songs of war.
There are also some philosophical hymns, which deal with creation and the origin of the world. Atharva Vedic prayers are used at births, marriages, funerals, and other ceremonies. Though the Atharva Veda is used in the sacrificial ritual, it does not have the same sanctity as the other three Vedas. The hymns and verses used in sacrifices were probably added so that the text could be used along with the other three Vedas, and recognized as a real Veda. Most of the hymns are used in griha or household rituals and not in shrauta or Soma sacrifices.
As Winternitz says: ‘It is an invaluable source of knowledge of the real popular belief as yet uninfluenced by the priestly religion, of the faith in numberless spirits, imps, ghosts, and demons of every kind, and of the witchcraft, so eminently important for ethnology and for the history of religion.’ Though brahmanical literature was generally against witchcraft or magic, according to the Manu Smriti (2.33): ‘Without hesitation the brahmana shall make use of the sacred texts of the Atharva Veda; the word indeed is the weapon of the brahmana; therewith may he kill his enemies.’ The Atharva has numerous hymns to protect brahmanas.
Parallels between the Atharva Veda and Shamanic, Mayan, and German Merseburg magic incantations and other magical traditions have been found, and aspects of the Atharva Veda later occur in the Tantras.
DATE
Most of the hymns have some similarity in language and metre to the Rig Veda, with later aspects. The metrical rules are not followed strictly, as they are in the Rig Veda. The prose sections are similar in language to those in the Brahmanas. However, language and metre alone cannot lead to a conclusion regarding a later date, as it could merely reflect a difference between popular and priestly compositions. However, its references to different regions and to later socio-economic aspects indicate a post–Rig Vedic date. There are also philosophical hymns, which almost reach the high philosophy of the Upanishads. Of the twenty kandas, the nineteenth and twentieth seem to be later.
The songs of magic and the various charms were probably very ancient but do not seem to appear in their original form here; rather, they appear in a version rewritten by brahmanas. Despite its rewriting, the text reflects popular tradition. Hermann Oldenberg felt that the oldest parts of the Atharva were the prose sections. According to Winternitz, ‘numerous pieces of the Atharva Veda date back to the same dim prehistoric times as the oldest songs of the Rig Veda’. Maurice Bloomfield feels the charms can be dated to the Indo-European period. The text has also been related to an Indo-Iranian period. Athravan is a term for a fire priest in the Avesta, the literature of Zoroastrianism. Athar may also be related to atar, the Avestan (Iranian) term for fire. According to the scholar Martin Haug, the Avesta knows some Atharva collection under the name Apam Aivishtis.
Though the final version of the Atharva is certainly fairly late, one cannot refer to an Atharva Veda period, as there are both early and late elements. According to tradition, Paippalada and Vaidharbhi, who are associated with the text, lived at the time of Hiranyanabha of the Ikshvaku dynasty.
The later Kaushika Sutra describes the practices connected with the Atharva Veda hymns and complements the text.
SHAKHAS
Nine shakhas of the Atharva are listed in Shaunaka’s Charanavyuha: Paippalada, Stauda, Mauda, Shaunakiya, Jajala, Jalada, Kuntapa, Brahmavada, Devadarsha. The Atharva Veda is known today in two recensions belonging to two shakhas, Shaunaka and Paippalada. The Shaunakiya recension consists of 731 hymns, with about six thousand verses, divided into twenty books or sections. The Shaunaka is known from various parts of India. Its oral traditions had been maintained in Gujarat, and recently revived in parts of south India. The Paippalada recension has been found both in Kashmir and in Orissa. The Paippalada is slightly longer, though it has very few vratya hymns, and excludes the funeral hymns.
COMPOSERS
The joint name Atharva-Angirasa is related to two aspects of the text, and connected with the names of two people, Bhishaj Atharvana and Ghora Angirasa. Atharvan is thought to refer to the healing practices described in this Veda, and Angirasa to its negative spells. Atharvan is also an ancient priest. In the Rig Veda, he is said to have produced Agni or fire, and brought order through sacrifices. He was the messenger of Vivasvat. According to the Atharva Veda, Atharvan was a companion of the gods. Possibly, he was the head of a family of real or mythical priests. Atharvan is also used as a generic term for a priest, while Atharvans, in plural, are a class of pitris or ancestors, who live in heaven. Dadhyanch was descended from Atharvan. According to the Bhagavata Purana, Atharvan married Shanti, daughter of the rishi Kardama, and was responsible for spreading the practice of yajnas (sacrifices) in the world. Both Atharvan and Angirasa are considered mythic fire priests.
The first few suktas are attributed to Atharva. Some hymns are also ascribed to other rishis, among them Kaushika, Vasishtha and Kashyapa. The composers of the hymns are not mentioned in the text. The later Sarvanukramani provides a list of composers.
ARRANGER
The traditional arranger is Vyasa, as for the other Samhitas.
PRIEST
The brahman priest represents this Veda. He is assisted by other priests.
SUMMARY OF THE TEXT
A summary of the Shaunakiya recension of the text is given below. As mentioned earlier, this has twenty kandas. In the first eighteen kandas, hymns seem to have been arranged according to a plan. From Kanda 1 through 4, the number of verses in each hymn show a gradual increase in succession. Kandas 1–7 have short hymns with varied content. Kandas 8–12 have long hymns with varied content. From Kandas 13 through 18, each deals mainly with a specific topic.
In Kanda 1, most hymns have four verses each. There are a total of thirty-five hymns. The text begins with a prayer to Vachaspati for divine knowledge. Other deities mentioned in this section are the waters (Apah), Indra, Agni, Brihaspati, Soma, Parjanya, Prithivi, Mitra, Varuna, Pushan, the Adityas, the Vishvedevas, Aryaman, Savitr, and Dyaus-Prithivi. Many of the gods are invoked in prayers or charms against various diseases including fever, headache, cough, jaundice, and leprosy. The content of the hymns is quite varied. Some are prayers for the destruction of demons such as
Yatudanas and Kimidins, and for enemies such as the dasyus (a group of people, discussed further in Chapter 7 of this book). There are prayers for protection, prosperity, health, and happiness made to various deities, as well as a specific prayer for protection from arrows and enemies. One hymn is a prayer to free a sinner from the anger of the god Varuna.
Interesting are two hymns, 1.29 and 1.30, which include a charm to secure the supremacy of a dethroned king and a benediction for a king at his consecration. Among other hymns are a spell for childbirth, a prayer for happiness for children, a woman’s prayer against a rival, a young man’s love-charm, a charm to become invisible and a prayer to ensure long life and glory.
In Kanda 2, most of the hymns have five verses each. There are thirty-six hymns in all, which again elucidate miscellaneous topics. The first hymn (2.1) looks at the highest element, the prime cause of all things. There are some general prayers for protection against enemies as well as prayers and charms for the cure of diseases. The prayers also indicate the use of amulets worn for protection, health, and freedom from disease. Among other interesting hymns are a prayer to ensure success in gambling, a beautiful prayer against fear, and a prayer for the long and happy life of a child. There is a prayer to bring a wonderful husband to an unmarried girl. The gods prayed to include Indra, Agni, Bhaga, Soma, Aryaman, Savitr, and others.
In Kanda 3, most of the hymns have six verses each. There are a total of thirty-one hymns on many diverse and interesting topics. There are prayers and charms for the cure of diseases, for prosperity, and against enemies. There are blessings for a newly built house, a newly dug water channel and a cattle pen. Other interesting hymns are a prayer for the new year, a morning prayer invoking blessings of various deities, a merchant’s prayer for success in his business, and a prayer to the plough. There are other prayers for success in battle, and for the restoration or increase in the strength of a king. There are charms to secure love and submission, bring love or harmony in marriage, defeat rivals, cure a woman’s sterility, ensure the birth of boys, and several other charms and prayers on varied topics.
In Kanda 4, most of the hymns have seven verses each. There are forty hymns in all. This section begins with a hymn which reveals cosmological and mythical ideas. Some hymns are in praise of various deities including Agni, Indra, Dyaus-Prithivi, Mitra-Varuna, Varuna alone as an omniscient god, the Maruts, Bhava and Sarva, Vayu, and Savitr. There are also hymns to Vak and Manyu, and to the Unknown God. There are charms and prayers for protection, health, freedom from enemies and from various evils. Among many others are a charm to heal broken bones, to bring rain, and against the effects of poison. Two interesting charms are against tigers, wolves, thieves and other dangers, and to acquire superhuman powers of sight. Two hymns are benedictions for a king, and one for cows. There is also a charm for success in gambling.
In Kanda 5, there are hymns with eight to eighteen verses. There are altogether 31 hymns. They include prayers to Agni, Indra, Trita, Varuna, Dyaus and Prithivi, and to the presiding deities of the four quarters. There are prayers for health, protection and prosperity, and for the increase of cattle, against emenies and demonic beings, and charms against fever, worms and other ailments and to mend broken bones and conceive a child. There are also charms against snakes and witchcraft. Two interesting hymns include a dialogue between Atharvan and Varuna, and one on the abduction and restoration of a brahmana’s wife. There are other hymns that condemn harassing brahmanas in any way. Two hymns are to the war drum to secure victory.
Kanda 6 has 142 hymns. Several are prayers to various deities inluding Savitr, Agni, Brahmanaspati, Soma, the Maruts, Surya, and Apah. One prayer is to Agni and Indra for the well-being of a princely patron. This section has a number of prayers and charms against diseases, including against consumption, fever, wounds or bruises, eruptions, and against insanity. There are several love charms and others to banish jealousy. There are charms to ensure conception, the birth of a boy, and several to strengthen hair and promote its growth. There is a prayer to the rivers, which specifically refers to the Sindhu.
There are also prayers for peace, security, prosperity, power, health, and longevity, and blessings and charms against serpents, reptiles and insects, and to reconcile friends.
Kanda 7 has 118 hymns. The gods prayed to include Agni, Vayu, Aditi, the Adityas, the Ashvins, Vak, Sarasvati, Savitr, Vishnu, Brihaspati, Indra, and Ida. Pushan is prayed to for protection and the recovery of lost property. There are prayers in praise of Atharvan and others for long life, wealth, children, happiness, freedom from sin, and to bring rain. There are charms to win divine favour; to banish problems, enemies and demons; to achieve success in battle; to win love, and there are charms for the bride and bridegroom. There are prayers for the prosperity of a king and his kingdom, and some in praise of sacrifices as well as several other miscellaneous hymns. Some are for freedom from various diseases. There is a prayer for sacred knowledge and its fruit and a charm to obtain knowledge of the Veda. Some other interesting hymns are a funeral hymn, a blessing on cows, a charm for a king to make his subjects obedient. There are some verses to be used in sacrifices.
Kanda 8 has ten hymns, beginning with two for the recovery of a dying man. There are some prayers and charms for removing evil spirits and demons, restoring health, and one against a hostile army. Hymns 9 and 10 are the most interesting. The first deals with cosmological and ritual doctrines and the second is a glorification of the mystical concept of Viraj. Viraj can be considered a secondary creator. In the Rig Veda, Viraj was born from Purusha and Purusha from Viraj.
Kanda 9 has ten hymns on miscellaneous topics, beginning with a prayer to the Ashvins, followed by one in praise of Kama, as the god of desire and of all that is good. Hymns 9 and 10 provide an elaboration of cosmological doctrines.
Kanda 10, too, has ten miscellaneous hymns, beginning with a charm against witchcraft. The second hymn is on Purusha, the primeval man, while hymn 7 sees Skambha (supporting principle) as the basis or support for all existence. The eighth hymn has speculations on a supreme being, while the ninth contains the Sautadana or hundredfold oblation. The tenth glorifies the cow, which represents heaven.
Kanda 11 has ten hymns. The first consists of verses for the brahmaudana, the boiled rice mixture used in sacrifices, while the second is a prayer to Bhava, Sarva, and Rudra. Among other hymns are those which praise prana (breath) and the brahmachari (unmarried student). The last two hymns contain spells to destroy a hostile army, while the eighth is on the origin of certain gods and on creation.
Kanda 12 has five hymns beginning with a hymn to Prithivi, followed by a funeral hymn.
Kanda 13 consists of four hymns, which praise Rohita. Rohita is glorified as a form of fire and the sun, and praised as the highest being.
Kanda 14 has two hymns dealing with the marriage of Suryaa, daughter of Surya the sun god, and with marriage ceremonies in general.
Kanda 15 and most of Kanda 16 are in prose. Kanda 15 has eighteen hymns, all dealing with the vratya. This complex series of hymns and prose passages is very difficult to interpret. Vratya, a Sanskrit term, literally means ‘one who has taken a vow’. Vratyas were a group of people, whose nature is uncertain. References indicate that vratyas did not follow the Vedas or observe brahmanical rules, and were often ascetic wanderers. The Yajur Veda includes a vratya in the list of victims for a Purushamedha.
In the Atharva Veda, vratyas are described in a mystical way, as pervading the whole world. The heavenly vratya is identified with Mahadeva, while the earthly vratya is his prototype. A vratya is also said to be a person who wandered to different places, a kind of religious mendicant.
The first hymn of this kanda is given here, indicating the complexity of the concept:
15.1
There was a roaming Vratya. He roused Prajapati to action.
Prajapati beheld gold in himself and engendered it.
That became unique, that became distinguished, that became great, that became
excellent, that became devotion, that became holy fervour, that became truth, through that he was born.
He grew, he became great, he became Mahadeva.
He gained the lordship of the gods. He became Lord.
He became chief Vratya. He held a bow, even that bow of Indra.
His belly is dark blue, his back is red.
With dark blue he envelops a detested rival, with red he pierces the man who hates him: so the theologians say.
The Panchavimsha Brahmana describes sacrifices by which the vratya was absorbed into the brahmana caste. Their principles were said to be opposed by the brahmanas. The grihapati (leader or householder) wore a turban (ushnisha), carried a whip (pratoda), a kind of bow (jyahroda), wore black clothes, and had two skins (white and black). They owned a kind of wagon (vipatha) covered with planks. The leader wore an ornament (nishka) of silver. The others wore garments with red fringes, two each, skins folded double, and sandals (upanah).
Later references to vratyas are somewhat different, indicating they were people born from mixed castes, or from higher castes, but had not undergone initiations or purificatory rites. The Manu Smriti lists a number of vratya groups born from brahmana, kshatriya and vaishya vratyas. The names indicate that they were outside the main region of Aryavarta. The Brahmanda Purana states that vratya was a stage of life where varna and ashrama rules were not followed (3.48.47). Another Purana states that at Arbuda (a place identified with Mt Abu), those that were divijas (twice-born) became vratyas after the time of Puramjaya.
Textual references thus indicate there were different kinds of vratyas. In early days in the time of the Atharva Veda, they seem to have formed a separate religious cult which, however, was not totally alien, and they could be absorbed into the brahmanical fold through special rites. According to one theory, Vratyas were actually Vedic students who wandered around for six months before returning to their teacher. This may have been one category but most references to them do not support this. In later texts, vratyas were outsiders of some kind yet, again, not wholly alien.