by Roshen Dalal
Kanda 16 has nine hymns with various charms and blessings, beginning with a hymn on the purificatory aspects of water.
Kanda 17 contains only one hymn, which consists of a prayer to Indra. Here Indra is identified with Vishnu and the Sun. The prayer is for general protection, prosperity, and blessings.
Kanda 18 has four hymns connected with funeral ceremonies, partly taken from the Rig Veda.
Kanda 19 has seventy-two diverse hymns. These include philosophical hymns, hymns to various deities including Agni, Usha, Brahma, Kama, and Kala, as well as prayers for wealth and protection, and for victory in battle. There are charms for destruction of enemies and against diseases, and to gain a long life, and blessings for a newly elected king. Hymn 37 is a charm to secure a long life and dominion for a prince. There are hymns praising amulets and curative herbs, as well as some sacrificial formulas and a few prayers to be used with sacrifices. The Purusha-sukta, and a prayer to the twenty-eight nakshatras (constellations through which the moon passes), is included.
There are also prayers for final happiness in heaven, and to gain the love of both gods and people. A verse in the latter hymn reads: ‘Make me beloved among the gods, beloved among the princes / Make me dear to everyone who sees, to Shudra and to Arya.’
Kanda 20 has 143 hymns, most of them from the Rig Veda. The new hymns are mainly 127–36, called Kuntapa Hymns, which are also part of sacrificial ritual.
The first of these, hymn 20.127, is in praise of the good government of King Kaurama. This is followed by sacrificial formulas and other verses. The last five hymns of this kanda praise the Ashvins.
The first verse of the Atharva Veda is given below:
To Vachaspati
1.1
Now may Vachaspati assign to me the strength and power of those
Who wearing every shape and form, the triple seven, are wandering round.
Come thou again Vachaspati
Come with divine intelligence.
Vachaspati repose thou here. In me be knowledge, yes, in me.
Here, even here, spread sheltering arms like the two bow arms strained with cord.
This let Vachaspati confirm. In me be knowledge, yes, in me.
Vachaspati has been invoked; may he invite us in reply.
May we adhere to sacred lore. Never may I be reft thereof.
(Based on the translation by R.T.H. Griffith)
Chapter 2
Related Literature
BRAHMANAS
Among the numerous texts that throw light on the Vedic Samhitas, the most closely related are the Brahmanas. The Brahmanas are texts attached to the Samhitas—Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva Vedas—and provide explanations of these and guidance for the priests in sacrificial rituals.
The various Brahmanas are as listed below:
Attached to the Rig Veda: Aitareya Brahmana (common to the Shakala and Ashvalayana shakhas); Kaushitaki Brahmana; Shankhayana Brahmana (almost identical with Kaushitaki).
Attached to the Sama Veda: Tandya or Panchavimsha Brahmana; Shadvimsha Brahmana, which includes Adbhuta; Samavidhana Brahmana; Arsheya Brahmana; Devatadhyaya Brahmana; Chhandogya or Mantra Brahmana; Samhitopanishad Brahmana; Vamsha Brahmana; Jaiminiya or Talavakra Brahmana; Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana; Jaiminiya Arsheya Brahmana.
Attached to the Black Yajur Veda or Taittiriya Samhita: Taittiriya Brahmana.
Attached to the White Yajur Veda: Shatapatha Brahmana, which has two different recensions, Kanva and Madhyandina.
Attached to the Atharva Veda: Gopatha Brahmana.
DATE
The Brahmanas are considered later than the Vedic Samhitas but contain some archaic elements. Their exact date would depend on that of the Samhitas and is, therefore, uncertain. Various scholars provide different relative dates for the Brahmanas. The prose portions of the Yajur (Taittiriya Samhita), which really constitute a Brahmana, are considered the earliest. The Panchavimsha Brahmana and Taittiriya Brahmana are probably next in date, followed by the Jaiminiya, Kaushitaki and Aitareya
Brahmanas, in that order. Sometimes, the Aitareya is considered older than the Kaushitaki, and the Jaimini older than the Panchavimsha. The Shatapatha is later than these, and the Gopatha and various short Brahmanas of the Sama, the latest. These views are based on linguistic analysis. These Brahmana texts are generally dated to between approximately 1000 BCE and 600 BCE, but they could be earlier.
LANGUAGE
In language, the Brahmanas demonstrate a more limited use of forms than the Rig Veda. But the syntax is said to represent the oldest stage of the language better than the Rig Veda, as the Brahmanas are mainly in prose while, in the Rig, the use of metres modifies the language. There are some passages in verse in the Brahmanas.
SUBJECT MATTER
The subject matter of the Brahmanas can be divided into two main topics of vidhi (rules) and arthavada (explanations). Thus the rules for conducting a sacrifice are supplemented by a commentary on aspects connected with the sacrifice, including stories and legends used to explain a point. They do not explain everything about the sacrifices but provide some details.
The symbolism of each item used in the sacrifice is explained in several texts. Rules for the sacrifice are laid out in minute detail, and any deviation is believed to lead to its failure. These complicated sacrifices gradually came to be conducted only by special priests, while earlier even householders could perform them. This led to the supremacy of the brahmana (caste) priests, who conducted the sacrifices.
Stories and legends in these texts include those of Manu and the flood, Harishchandra and Shunahshepa, and Pururava and Urvashi. There are early creation myths in which Prajapati, or sometimes Manu, is the creator. Some philosophical concepts are also mentioned. The Brahmanas are essentially similar but each emphasizes the role of specific priests. Thus the Rig Vedic Brahmanas emphasize the role of the hotr, the Sama Veda Brahmanas of the udgatr, and the Yajur Brahmanas of the adhvaryu.
The similarity of content among the different Brahmanas is marked, even though they must have been composed at different points in time over a long period. A brief description of the various Brahmanas is given below.
RIG VEDA BRAHMANAS
AITAREYA BRAHMANA
This Brahmana, attached to the Rig Veda, is used by the Shakala and Ashvalayana shakhas. It has forty adhyayas, arranged within eight panchikas or sections, and includes a number of topics. The text provides a description of various sacrifices such as the Soma sacrifice, the agnihotra and the rajasuya. Mahidasa Aitareya is the traditional author of these texts. He is said to be the son of a brahmana from a shudra woman. However, Adhyayas 31–40 of the Aitareya Brahmana are assigned to Shaunaka.
Some details of this text are given below as indicative of the type of material contained in a Brahmana. The sacrifices themselves are described in Chapter 10 of this book.
Panchika 1, with Adhyayas 1–5, is on the Soma sacrifice, and begins with the agnishtoma, the consecration rites and the verses to be recited at these. It includes the introductory sacrifices, the buying and bringing of the Soma, welcoming Soma as a guest in the house of the sacrificer, and the first rituals, consisting of the pravargya. This is succeeded by the carrying forward of the fire, and the offerings to the high altar.
Panchika 2, with Adhyayas 6–10, continues with the agnishtoma Soma sacrifice. It includes the animal sacrifice, the cups of Soma to be offered to the deities, and their symbolism.
Panchika 3, with Adhyayas 11–15, continues with the agnishtoma Soma sacrifice. It includes a propitiation of the god Rudra, general considerations regarding the agnishtoma, and certain details regarding the sacrifice.
Panchika 4, with Adhyayas 16–20, continues with the agnishtoma Soma sacrifice in Adhyaya 16, and with the shodashin and the atiratra sacrifices. This is followed in Adhyayas 17 and 18, with the gavam ayana, which lasts 360 days. Adhyayas 19 and 20 describe the inauguration and the first two days of the dvadashaha or twelve-day Soma rite.
Panchika
5, with Adhyayas 21–25, continues with the dvadashaha rite of the Soma sacrifice from the third to the tenth days in Adhyayas 21–24. This is followed by comments on the agnihotra and on the brahman priest.
Panchika 6, with Adhyayas 26–30, continues with the agnihotra, dealing mainly with the specific verses of praise (shastras) to be uttered by the hotr and his assistants.
Panchika 7, with Adhyayas 31–35, continues with the agnihotra in 31 and 32, dealing with the animal offering, distribution of portions of the victim, and expiations of errors in the sacrifice. Adhyayas 33–35 begin an account of preparations for the royal consecration ceremonies (vajapeya and rajasuya).
Panchika 8, with Adhyayas 36–40, continues the account of the royal consecration. It describes the stotras and shastras of the Soma day, the anointing of the king, the great anointing of Indra, the great anointing of the king, and ends with a description of the role of the purohita, the chief priest of the king.
KAUSHITAKI BRAHMANA
Kaushitaki Brahmana, the other Brahmana attached to the Rig Veda, contains thirty adhyayas. The matter is similar to the Aitareya, with the Soma sacrifices being the central topic, but there are some differences. Adhyayas 1–6 deal with the fire sacrifices, including the laying of the fire, the agnihotra, the new- and full-moon sacrifices, and the four-monthly sacrifices. Adhyayas 7–30 describe the Soma sacrifices, in more or less the same way as the Aitareya Brahmana. The Shankhayana Brahmana is almost the same as the Kaushitaki.
SAMA VEDA BRAHMANAS
PANCHAVIMSHA BRAHMANA
The Panchavimsha Brahmana is one of the most important Brahmanas attached to the Sama Veda. It is named ‘Panchavimsha’ (twenty-five) because it has twenty-five prapathakas (sections). These are divided into 347 khandas or subsections. This is considered one of the oldest Brahmanas, and is also known as the Tandya-maha-Brahmana. The text describes the rituals and samans for the udgatr. It provides directions for various sacrifices including the Soma sacrifices. It incorporates various legends and stories. It is the main Brahmana for the Kauthuma and Ranayaniya shakhas of the Sama Veda.
SHADVIMSHA BRAHMANA
Shadvimsha Brahmana, or the twenty-sixth Brahmana, is actually a conclusion of the Panchavimsha, which has twenty-five books. This includes the Adbhuta Brahmana, which contains omens and miracles. The text has five sections, and the language seems to predate Panini, the composer of the classic Sanskrit grammar. It incorporates verses for the Subrahmanya priest, who was one of the assistants of the udgatr.
JAIMINIYA BRAHMANA
The Jaiminiya Brahmana is a long text with several legends and stories apart from the other typical Brahmana content. It has three main kandas. Kanda 1.1–65 deals with the agnihotra; this is followed by the agnishtoma (1.65–364), the gavam ayana (2.1–80), the ekaha Soma sacrifice (2.81–234), the ahina Soma sacrifice (2.235–333), the sattras (2.334–370), and then the gavam ayana again (2.371–442). Kanda 3 contains instructions for the dvadashaha as well as geographical and other miscellaneous material.
JAIMINIYA UPANISHAD BRAHMANA
The Jaiminiya Upanishad or Talavakara Upanishad Brahmana is available in fragmentary form. It is different from the Jaiminiya Brahmana and is considered an Aranyaka.
SAMAVIDHANA BRAHMANA
The Samavidhana is composed mostly in sutra style, that is, in terse verses. It explains how to use samans, which are more effective than just reciting the texts. The samans can be used both for healing and magic.
ARSHEYA BRAHMANA
The Arsheya belongs to the Kauthuma shakha; this Brahmana is in sutra style, and gives the names of the Sama melodies of the first two ganas, the Gramageyagana and Aranyakagana. The names are derived in various ways: from the name of the rishi composer; from the first or concluding part of a stanza, or a particular phrase in it; or from its aim or purpose. The names of the rishis connected with each song are provided, and can be different from the rishi who originally composed the underlying rik. The text has three prapathakas. It can be classified as an anukramani or index.
DEVATADHYAYA BRAHMANA
The first part of the Devatadhyaya is the most important as it provides rules to determine the deities to whom the samans are dedicated. Another section ascribes colours to different verses, possibly as aids to memory or for meditation. The Devatadhyaya includes some very late passages such as references to the four yugas or ages.
CHHANDOGYA BRAHMANA
The Chhandogya has ten prapathakas, of which the first two form the Brahmana, also known as the Mantra Brahmana or Mantra Parvan. Prapathakas 3–10 contain the Chhandogya Upanishad. The Chhandogya Brahmana is divided into eight khandas and has mantras that are used in grihya (household) sacrifices. The Khadira and Gobhila Grihya Sutras refer to these mantras.
SAMHITOPANISHAD BRAHMANA
The Samhitopanishad Brahmana belongs to the Kauthuma school. It has some older material and is composed in a mixture of prose and verse. It describes the nature of the chants and their effects, and how the riks or Rig Vedic verses were converted into samans. Thus it reveals some of the hidden aspects of the Sama Veda.
VAMSHA BRAHMANA
The Vamsha, a short Brahmana, has a list of fifty-three teachers of the Sama Veda. The earliest teacher, Kashyapa, is said to have received the teaching from the god Agni.
JAIMINIYA ARSHEYA BRAHMANA
This provides the names of Sama melodies. Thus it is similar to the Arsheya Brahmana of the Kauthuma school but for the fact that the names of the rishis in the two are different. Unlike the Kauthuma text, this lists only one rishi per saman.
KRISHNA YAJUR VEDA BRAHMANAS
TAITTIRIYA BRAHMANA
The Taittiriya Brahmana is a continuation of the Taittiriya Samhita, which also contains Brahmana portions. This Brahmana has three kandas. The first explains the agnyadhana, gavam ayana, vajapeya, some Soma sacrifices, the nakshatreshti, and the rajasuya sacrifices. The second kanda deals with the agnihotra, upahomas, sautramani, vaisyasava, and other sacrifices. The last kanda has additional details on various sacrifices such as the nakshatreshti and ashvamedha, and contains a description of the purushamedha. Some stories are included as well.
VADHULA BRAHMANA
Also known as the Anvakhyana Brahmana, this is a Brahmana type of text, though it is actually a part of the Vadhula Shrauta Sutra.
SHUKLA YAJUR VEDA OR VAJASANEYI
SAMHITA (WHITE YAJUR VEDA) BRAHMANAS
SHATAPATHA BRAHMANA
This is the longest of the Brahmanas. The text has two main recensions, the Kanva and Madhyandina. The Madhyandina has 100 adhyayas in fourteen kandas. The first nine kandas form a commentary on the first eighteen sections of the Yajur Veda text of the Vajasaneyi Samhita. Kandas 1–5 seem closely connected. The kandas and their main topics are as follows:
Kanda 1: Haviryajna, dealing with the full- and new-moon sacrifices
Kanda 2: Ekapadika, on the installation of the sacred fires, agnihotra, pindapitrayajna, agrayana and chaturmasya
Kanda 3: Adhvara, on Soma sacrifices
Kanda 4: Graha, also on Soma sacrifices
Kanda 5: Sava, on the vajapeya and rajasuya
Kanda 6: Ukhasambharana, on the Agnichayana (laying of the fire altar), and Agnirahasya (fire altar mystery)
Kanda 7: Hastighata, as above
Kanda 8: Chiti, as above
Kanda 9: Samchiti, as above
Kanda 10: Agnirahasya, as above
Kanda 11: Ashtadhyayi, a recapitulation of previous chapters; in addition this has a description of the upanayana (initiation) and svadhyaya (self-study) of the Vedas; these last two topics usually do not appear in the Brahmanas
Kanda 12: Madhyama, on various sacrifices
Kanda 13: Ashvamedha, includes descriptions of the ashvamedha and purushamedha; it also refers to antyeshti (funeral ceremonies) and erecting a burial mound
Kanda 14: Brihadaranyaka, describes the pravargya ritual and includes the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
The text thus has
descriptions of the method of performing various sacrifices. Apart from those mentioned above, the sarvamedha (sacrifice of everything), and the duties of a student are also described.
The rishi Yajnavalkya is the traditional author and, in Kanda 14, is said to be the author of the entire text. However, in Kandas 6–9, Shandilya is the teacher and Yajnavalkya is not mentioned. Shandilya is also said to be the teacher of the agnirahasya in Kanda 10. In the last part of the text, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, sacrifices are only symbolic.
The Kanva recension has 104 adhyayas in seventeen kandas: Ekapad, Haviryajna, Uddhari, Adhvara, Graha, Vajapeya, Rajasuya, Ukhasambharana, Hastighata, Chiti, Samchiti, Agnirahasya, Ashtadhyayi, Madhyama, Ashvamedha, Pravargya, and Brihadaranyaka. The contents of the two recensions are largely the same but some adhyayas of the Madhyandina are here divided into two.
Apart from explaining Vedic sacrifices in detail, this Brahmana includes myths and legends, such as the stories of Pururava and Urvashi, and of Chyavana and Sukanya. Another interesting aspect is that various questions are framed as riddles.