by Roshen Dalal
LOCATION
All the plants, trees, birds and animals correspond with those found in the north India–Pakistan Indus–Ganga plains, and the hills and mountains to the north.
Chapter 7
The Tribes and Clans
Some places and many tribal groups have been mentioned in the Rig Veda, providing further indications of where the text was composed. Some aspects of the way of life at that time can be surmised from the text. Various scholars have different views on the general location of the different clans, and the region where the text was composed.
A few divergent views are given here. According to the Vedic Index, ‘There is much evidence in placing the composition of the bulk of the Rig Veda, especially the books 3 and 8 in which Sudas appears along with Vasishtha and Vishvamitra, in the east, the later Madhyadesha.’ This view was supported by the early scholars including Pischel, Geldner, and the American Sanskrit expert E.W. Hopkins. Another early German Sanskrit scholar, Alfred Hillebrandt, placed the sixth mandala in Iranian lands.
A few scholars of the past and present feel that all places mentioned should be located in Afghanistan but have not done a detailed identification of sites there. Most believe that the Rig Veda was composed mainly in the region of the river Indus and its tributaries. This is confirmed by the analysis in the previous chapter, where the location of the rivers, mountains, and the natural habitat, including trees, plants, animals, and birds, has been extensively analysed. This analysis indicates that the region of occupation corresponds with the north-west of India, the region to the west of the Yamuna, extending into Punjab, present-day Pakistan, and Afghanistan. Here, we will will look at the people and places as well as aspects of the society and economy.
ARYA, DASA, DASYU
These three terms are generally used to refer to groups of people. What exactly they meant, and whom they referred to, is controversial. Arya is considered to refer to the main group of people in the Rig Veda. The term anarya is used in contrast to it. In earlier times, these were considered racial or ethnic divisions but recent scholars feel such an interpretation has no justification. In the Rig Veda, arya refers to those who sacrifice properly as opposed to those who do not. The term came to mean noble, righteous, or morally superior, and is used in this sense even in the Rig Veda. In the 19th and 20th centuries, writers sought to derive its meaning from the root ‘ar’ and came up with different theories. For instance, Max Müller (1862) saw the root ‘ar’ as ‘to cultivate or plough’, hence arya was one who cultivated the land. Others interpreted the root as ‘to go’, ‘to fit’, ‘to share’, and ‘to beget’. Based on this, various meanings were assigned to arya, such as ‘companionable’, ‘hospitable’, ‘friendly’, or ‘one who roams like a nomad’. These theories were examined by Oswald Szemerenyi, the Hungarian specialist in Indo-European languages, who felt they were not conclusive, but the term could mean kinsman. The known later meaning of ‘noble’ probably fits the Rig Vedic period as well. Thus, in Buddhism, arya satya means the noble truths, and arya marga is the noble eightfold path. In the south, ayya, the term for arya, is used even for deities. The Indian scholar Shrikant Talageri, in his analysis of the text, finds the term arya has been used only thirty-six times in thirty-four hymns of the Rig Veda. He feels that the term initially referred only to a specific clan, the Bharatas. Though this may not be correct, it may be more limited in its application to various groups than is generally accepted.
Some other Indo-European languages have terms derived from the same root. The term airya was used in Iran but it does not occur in the earliest Avestan texts in Old Avestan. It had ethnic connotations from the 6th century BCE. There are also similarities with the German ehre, ‘honour’; the Greek aristos, where ‘ari’ is ‘very’, ‘super’, ‘extremely’; the Celtic arios, ‘noble’ or ‘in advance’ or ‘leading’, which comes from the old Irish aire, or airech, meaning ‘freeman’, ‘nobleman’, or ‘leader’. However, according to recent studies, the Irish Eire is not cognate with arya; it comes from Proto-Irish Iueriu, with Welsh cognate Iwerddon, derived from the genitive form of Iueriu, Iuerionas, ultimately from Proto-Indo-European pi-wer, ‘fat-fertile’.
Other groups are referred to as dasa or dasyu. The terms are used to describe people different from the aryas, who were often their enemies. Dasas or dasyus are said to be avrata and akratu, those who do not observe vows or perform sacrifices; they are said to be mridhra-vach, which has been interpreted as having different, strange, or hostile speech. In three passages, they are termed krishna-tvach or asiknitvach. This has been interpreted as dark-skinned, or dark in a metaphorical sense. Sayana, however, saw the term tvacham-krishnam as the name of an asura. In one passage, dasas are said to be anasa. Again, this has been interpreted as flat-nosed, noseless (a-nasa), or even faceless, again perhaps in a metaphorical sense. It has also been interpreted as mouthless or speechless (an-asa), that is those with different or unintelligible speech. At one time, passages in the texts were interpreted to indicate conflicts, the dasas or dasyus being seen as the original inhabitants, and the aryas as immigrants. At that time, dasas and dasyus were generally seen as dark-skinned and flat-nosed, in contrast to the fair aryas. However, a re-examination of the text indicates that the picture is not so clear or simplistic, as the terms can be differently interpreted. In addition, even so-called aryas, such as the Purus, had names ending in dasyu. Trasadasyu was Purukutsa’s son. Divodasa was Sudas’s father or ancestor. The aryas were not a united group and conflicts took place across tribes, irrespective of their origin. Many with non-Sanskrit names were associated with arya groups. Some scholars feel that the dasas and dasyus were earlier Indo-Aryan migrants though, if that were the case, it is not clear why they should be considered alien. Others identify them with Dahae and Dahyu, two Iranian tribes. However, as we will see later, dahyu initially referred to a land or territory, and not to a tribe.
Based on various references, the arya and dasa/dasyu groups may have spoken different languages but it does not seem as if they were totally alien to one another. In the Rig Veda, Indra is referred to as lord of wealth to whom all aryas and dasas belong (3.51.9).
In a later Buddhist text, the Bhaishajya-vastu (part of the Mula-Sarvastivada-vinaya), the Sanskrit-speaking arya-jatiya and dasyu-speaking dasyu-jatiya are mentioned. Buddha had to teach them in arya and dasyu languages. However, it should be noted that this is a much later text.
PLACES
In the Rig Veda, Kurukshetra is said to be the region through which the Sarasvati, Drishadvati, and Apaya flow. It was the region of present Haryana, around the modern Kurukshetra and extending south. Sharanyavant, probably a lake and a mountain or hill, was located here. According to Sayana, Sharyanah was a region in Kurukshetra, in which the lake Sharyanavant was located.
In the Brahmanas, Kurukshetra is said to be a sacred area. Among places that can be located in the Kurukshetra region are Bharati Tirtha, Ilayaspada, the town Manusha, Pastyavani, and Sarasvati tirtha. Bharati tirtha has been located in the middle of the Kurukshetra region, at Kopar or Koer, east of Kaithal and south-west of Thanesar. Ilayaspada, or Ilaspada, has been connected with Ila and Manu but the verse where it is prominently used (3.23.4) indicates that it is located in the region of the Sarasvati, Drishadvati, and Apaya, that is, the region of Kurukshetra. A. Cunningham, the British archaeologist and first director of the Archaeological Survey of India, discovered a place, Iraspada (near Kaithal), with which it can be identified. Manusha has been identified with Mansa, also near Kaithal. Pastyavani, both a place and a stream, is referred to as the home of Soma. Its suggested location is in Patiala. Sarasvati Tirtha was a sacred site on the banks of the river Sarasvati, probably near Thanesar. Vivasvat Sadan was another place in the Kurukshetra region.
Bhajeratha could be a place but its location is not clear. Some see it as a corruption of the text, which should be read as Bhagiratha. Other places mentioned include Urjayanti and Chedi. Urjayanti possibly refers to a fort, the stro
nghold of Narmara, though there are other interpretations of the term. Chedi, mentioned in a danastuti (list of gifts), was in later times located in Bundelkhand, a region south of the river Yamuna. Its location in the time of the Rig Veda is not clear.
CLANS OR TRIBES
numerous clans or tribes are mentioned. It is not possible to locate them in a precise area but the broad region can be identified. Some information on their location and nature can be deduced from the descriptions of the battles fought.
SUDAS AND THE BHARATAS
King Sudas is frequently mentioned in the Rig Veda. A major battle was fought between this king and a confederation of ten opposing clans, on the banks of the river Parushni (Ravi). Sudas then fought another battle on the Yamuna. We could presume that Sudas was trying to establish control over this region. Earlier, with Vishvamitra as his purohita, he won battles on the Vipash and Shutudri (Beas and Satluj). These two rivers are broadly between the Parushni and the Yamuna. However, there were a number of other contenders for control in the Parushni–Yamuna region. This would seem to be the core area of this text.
Sudas is referred to as a Tritsu and a Bharata. While some scholars believe the Tritsus and Bharatas were the same, another view is that the Bharatas formed a clan (jana) while the Tritsus were their royal family. The Bharatas are referred to as Tritsunam vishah, that is, of the Tritsu family. Devavata and Devashravas, both Bharata chiefs, offered sacrifices on the Drishadvati, Sarasvati, and Apaya, that is, the Kurukshetra region. Perhaps this was also Sudas’s stronghold from where he tried to expand to the west and the east.
Sudas’s queen named Sudevi was given to him by the twin gods, the Ashvins, who are said to have helped Sudas in other ways too. However, Indra was the god who supported Sudas in all his battles.
Sudas is also called Paijavana, which Yaska explains as ‘son of Pijavana’. Pijavana was either his father or another ancestor. Divodasa was another ancestor of Sudas. He was associated with the Bharatas. Another passage in the Rig states that the Bharatas were few and limited but as soon as Vasishtha became their priest or leader, the people of the Tritsus spread themselves everywhere. It is also said that the dwellers on the Yamuna and the Tritsus glorified Indra when he killed Bheda in battle.
SUDAS AND HIS ENEMIES
The hymns that mention Sudas’s battles are not too clear about the sequence of events but it can be deduced that among the ten kings who fought against Sudas on the Parushni river, there was a confederacy of five janas (clans): the Anus, Yadus, Turvashas, Druhyus, and Purus. Others that joined this battle were the Alina, Paktha, Bhalana, Shiva, and Vishanin. The first five may be located somewhere west of the Parushni, or near it. The latter five could either be farther west, or north of Sudas’s territory. The ten kings of these janas, who were led or organized by Sudas’s former purohita Vishvamitra, were defeated in the battle.
Some more details of these clans are given below:
Anus: The Anus are mentioned in the context of the battle, with the Druhyus in another passage, and elsewhere with the Turvashas, Yadus, and Dhruyus. After the battle, the Anu king seems to have drowned. One passage states that Indra gave the dwelling of the descendants of Anu to Tritsu. The Anus probably lived near the Parushni, and their territory was taken over by Sudas.
Purus: A number of Purus are known, among them Durgaha, Purukutsa, Trasadasyu, and Triksi Trasadasyava. Durgaha was the ancestor of Purukutsa, while Trasadasyu was Purukutsa’s son. Triksi Trasadasyava was a later prince. Kurushravana was also a descendant of Trasadasyu. The king of the Purus is thought to have died after the battle of the ten kings. This king was possibly Purukutsa, who was involved in an earlier conflict with Sudas, in which Purukutsa was the victor. Trasadasyu, the son of Purukutsa, seems to have had friendly relations with Sudas, hence some sort of peace may have been made after the battle. In the later Aitareya Brahmana and Shankhayana Shrauta Sutra, Trasadasyu is said to be a great king with the rishi Vasishtha as his purohita. However, at the time of this battle, Vasishtha was Sudas’s purohita. In another hymn, Agni of the Bharatas is said to be victorious over the Purus; but the Purus were also victorious over others.
Turvashas: Turvasha is mentioned several times in the Rig Veda, either as a name of a man or of a people, usually together with Yadu. Kurunga, mentioned in a verse along with the Turvashas, could have been a Turvasha king. Alternatively, Kurunga could have been a king of the Anus. The Turvashas are said to have crossed the Parushni but it is not clear from which side they did so. The Turvashas were defeated by Sudas but their king was saved by Indra. In a hymn of the eighth mandala, Turvasha was a worshipper of Indra along with an Anu prince, who was probably the successor of the one who drowned.
Yadu: This is a tribe or clan, and the name of its king, and is mentioned frequently with Turvasha; he seems to have survived the battle against Sudas, while Anu and Druhyu perished. Yadu may also have been involved in a raid across the Sarayu and the defeat of two kings, Arna and Chitraratha.
Druhyu: This is mentioned many times in the Rig Veda, in singular and in plural. They were a clan defeated by Sudas. The leader or king, Druhyu, probably drowned after this battle. The Druhyus in the Mahabharata are connected with Gandhara, and may have been somewhere in this region or to the west of the Parushni.
Alina, Paktha, Bhalana, Shiva, Vishanin: These five clans are mentioned together on the river Parushni. They probably fought against Sudas and were defeated by him, though one interpretation sees them as allies or a subdivision of the Tritsus. Regarding the Bhalana, there is a suggestion that their original home was around the Bolan Pass, because of the similarity in name, but this has no validity as Bolan is not an ancient name. Paktha is also referred to as a protégé of the Ashvins; a passage connects him with Trasadasyu, leader of the Purus. The Pakthas were allies of the Purus in the battle against Sudas. In another passage, Paktha is called Turvayana, the opponent of Chyavana. Paktha was probably a king of the Pakthas. The Shiva people can possibly be identified with the Shibis, who appear in the Anukramani as Shibi Aushinari. The Greeks refer to the Shibi or Shiboi as a people who lived between the Indus and Akesines (Asikni or Chenab). The Ushinaras referred to in the Rig were later associated with the Shibis. Vishanin seems to mean ‘having horns’; perhaps they were a people who wore horn-shaped helmets, or headgear with horns.
SOME OTHER GROUPS CONNECTED WITH SUDAS AND THE BHARATAS
Vasishthas: Connected with the Tritsus and Bharatas, they probably lived between the Parushni and the Yamuna.
Kurus: The Kurus are not mentioned in the Rig Veda but there is reference to King Kurushravana, a descendant of Trasadasyu, who was known as a Puru king. The Purus and Kurus were thus probably associated. Kurushravana’s son was Upamashravas; his father was Mitratithi; in one hymn, he is mentioned as if still alive. The Tritsu–Bharatas, along with the Purus, were probably among those who later formed the Kurus. Pakasthaman Kaurayana is another person mentioned in the Rig; his name associates him with the Kurus.
Krivi: Mentioned in the Rig Veda, the Krivi were settled in the region of the Sindhu and Asikni (Indus and Chenab) or near the Parushni. The Kritvan, mentioned with the Arjikas and five peoples, could be connected with the Krivis.
Vaikarnas: Sudas is said to have overthrown the twenty-one clans (janana) of the kings or people of the two Vaikaranas. One suggestion is that the Kurus and Krivis together formed the Vaikarnas. Vikarnas are known in the Mahabharata but their location is uncertain. The German Indologist and Sanskrit scholar Rudolph Roth placed them in Kashmir.
Kavashas: The Kavashas may be connected with the Purus and the later Kurus. In the Rig Veda, Kavasha was overthrown by Indra for the Tritsus, along with the Druhyu king. According to the Anukramani, Kavasha was the author of some hymns, including those referring to Kurushravana. In a Brahmana text, Kavasha Ailasha was a brahmana born of a female slave.
Kushikas: The Kushikas, a family of priests—the same as the Vishvamitras—helped the Bharatas in a raid on the Vipash and Shut
udri.
OTHER CLANS
Also perhaps in this region were the Nahus, Shimyus, Srinjayas, Vrichivants, Parthavas and Jahnus, the priestly Atri family, as well as the Yatis and Bhrigus.
The Srinjayas were closely associated with the Tritsus. There are also references to a Abhyavartin Chayamana, a Parthava prince who may be the same as Srinjaya Daivavata, who was victorious over the Vrichivants and Turvashas; his sacrificial fire too is referred to. Sahadevya Somaka, Prastoka, and Vitahavya seem to have been other Srinjaya princes, who are mentioned in the Rig Veda. The Srinjayas and Tritsus were probably allied, while the Turvashas were enemies of both. In the Shatapatha Brahmana, Devabhaga Shrautarsha was the purohita of the Kurus and the Srinjayas.
As the Srinjaya king Daivavata conquered the Vrichivants, they may have been located somewhere in the vicinty.
The Shimyus were one of the peoples or kings defeated by Sudas; in another passage they are associated with dasyus. Jahnavi, mentioned in the Rig, could refer to the Jahnus, a group that later merged with the Bharatas. Among other people, Varashikha was a leader of a tribe defeated by Abhyavartin Chayamana. The Yati were an ancient clan connected with Bhrigus, possibly of the distant past. They are also mentioned with Bhrigu in the Sama Veda; in the Yajur and in the Atharva, they are given to the Salavrika by Indra. Though salavrika means a hyena, in this context it must be the name of a clan.