by Roshen Dalal
NEAR THE YAMUNA
The Paravatas, Shalvas, and Matsyas were perhaps adjacent to the Yamuna on the west. The Rushamas too may have been in this region. The identification of these tribes here is mainly based on later sources.
Not much is said about the Matsyas in the Rig but they seem to have been a people opposed to Sudas. The Paravatas, whose name suggests that they are a mountain people, are often mentioned in the Rig and are connected with the river Sarasvati. In the later Panchavimsha Brahmana, they are a people on the Yamuna.
Rushama is mentioned in the Rig Veda as a protégé of Indra. In another passage, the Rushamas are cited as having a generous king Rinamchaya. In the Atharva, Rushama is referred to with the king Kaurama. In the Panchavimsha Brahmana, Rushama is said to have run around Kurukshetra and defeated Indra. They probably lived near the Sarasvati.
The Panchajanah or ‘five peoples’ are frequently referred to in the Rig Veda and Later Vedic texts; the term has been variously interpreted. Aupamanyava, as quoted in Yaska’s Nirukta, says they are the four varnas and the Nishadas; Sayana agrees with this interpretation. Yaska says they are the gandharvas, pitris, devas, asuras, and rakshasas. Roth and Geldner interpreted it as referring to all the people of the earth. The German Indologist and Sanskrit scholar Heinrich F. Zimmer believed it referred to the five tribes—Anus, Druhyus, Yadus, Turvashas, and Purus. Another theory is that it refers to five tribes that were the precursors of the later Panchalas.
EAST OF THE YAMUNA
King Sudas and the Tritsus won a great battle on the Yamuna. Their opponents—Ajas, Bhedas, Shigrus, Yakshus—were possibly located to the east of the river. Bheda may have been the leader of a tribe, who led his own people in the battle, apart from the other three groups. The Ajas may be connected with the Ajakeshins of Later Vedic sources, who were associated with the Kuru-Panchalas. Yakshu occurs in two places in the singular and plural, in the hymn celebrating Sudas’s battle. They possibly took part in two conflicts, as indicated by the text—one on the Parushni, and one on the Yamuna.
The Panis were also possibly in this region; their identification with the Parnians of Strabo, located far to the west, does not seem correct in the Rig Vedic context. The Indian scholar M.L. Bhargava locates the Panis on the Ganga. Pani seems to refer to either a person or a group, who did not make offerings to the devas or give gifts to the priests. In a dialogue hymn, Sarama, a messenger of Indra, asks them to surrender and give up their cows but they refuse and instead invite her to stay with them! The name of the Panis (one meaning of pani is merchant) also indicates their connection with trade.
NORTH-WEST OF THE REGION
The Parshus and Parthavas may be located farther north-west and could have Iranian connections. References to them are only through names of people. In a danastuti of the Rig Veda, Parshu is the name of man. In the Vrishakapi hymn of the Rig, Parshu Manavi seems to be the name of a woman. Parthava is also a name in one hymn. Scholars have seen these as references to Persians and to the antecedents of the Parthians. This is possible, though later texts indicate they were different and had Indian connections. In the later Shankhayana Shrauta Sutra, Tirindira Parashavya, meaning ‘Tirindira, a descendant of Parshu’, was a patron of Vatsa Kanva. The Parshus in Panini’s Ashtadhyayi were a warrior tribe. In the same text, the Parashavas are referred to as a tribe in south-west Madhyadesha. According to the 1st-century Greek text, The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, the Parthoi were a tribe in north India. Both Panini and the Periplus are considerably later hence, in Rig Vedic times, there is really no indication of where these clans were located. Some scholars use these names along with references to dasa and dasyu, which they identify with daha and dahyu of Iranian, as proof that the Indo-Iranian and Iranian homeland was in India. This is a bit far-fetched though the similarity in names is another indication of early Iranian and Indian connections. However, dahyu in Gathic Avestan is usually interpreted as land, domain, or territory, and does not have the later connotation of a tribe or clan.
Prithu and Prithushravas are names of people in the Rig Veda, and have again been connected with the Parthavas. Prithu was a semi-mythical person who initiated agriculture. In the Panchavimsha Brahmana, Prithushravas Daureshravas (a descendant of Dureshravas) is mentioned.
Gandhara is not directly mentioned in the Rig Veda, but the good wool of the sheep of the Gandharis is referred to. In the Atharva, Gandharis are mentioned with Mujavants, Angas, and Magadhas, that is, as people who are rather distant.
THE LOW HILLS TO THE NORTH
The Shambaras, a mountain people, may be in the Shivalik foothills, somewhere west of the Yamuna. Shambara, a dasa chief, was an enemy of Divodasa Atithigva, a Tritsu. Indra defeated Shambara for Divodasa, and destroyed his ninety-nine forts. Shambara is mentioned in several passages in the Rig as an enemy of Indra. In one passage, he is called a dasa, son of Kulitara; in another, he is said to have made himself a devata or god. He is also referred to with Shushna, Pipru, and Varchin, and with Chumuri and Dhuni. All these were defeated by Indra, their forts destroyed. Chumuri and his friend Dhuni were also said to be defeated for Dabhiti, another king, by Indra. According to Asko Parpola, the dasas were in Bactria, part of the BMAC (see Chapter 5), but this is rejected by others.
FARTHER EAST
The Kikata are a people whose leader was Pramaganda and who are said to be hostile to the singer of the hymn. According to Yaska, they were not aryas. Later, Kikata were a people in Magadha, and the term Kikata is sometimes used as a synonym for Magadha. Whether they were already in this region at the time of the Rig Veda is uncertain. There are references to the Sarayu and Gomati and, as seen earlier, in different contexts these may be the rivers of eastern Uttar Pradesh or Afghanistan.
SOUTH OF THE YAMUNA
The Chedis, later located in Bundelkhand, are mentioned but their location in this period is unclear. On the Sarayu, Chitraratha and Arna were defeated by Indra for the Turvasha Yadus. Chitraratha was later known as a Chedi king.
Among other groups, whose nature and location are uncertain, are Sanaka, Shandika, and Shista, which could be tribes or clans. In the Jaiminiya Brahmana, Sanaka was one of the two Kapyas, the other being Navaka, who took part in the sacrifice of Vibhindukiyas. The Shistas are referred to in a Valakhilya hymn.
Many other people are mentioned as enemies, friends, or those involved in conflicts, as in this hymn below, where Indra speaks:
I have enriched the singer with surpassing wealth; I have allowed the holy hymn to strengthen me.
I, furtherer of him who offers sacrifice, have conquered in each fight the men who do not worship.
The people of the heavens, the waters, and the earth have established me among the gods with Indra’s name.
I took for myself the two swift vigorous bays that speed on diverse paths, and the fierce bolt (vajra) for strength.
With deadly blows I smote Atka for Kavi’s sake; I guarded Kutsa well with these saving helps. As Shushna’s slayer I brandished the dart of death: I gave not up the arya name to dasyu foes.
Smadibha, Tugra, and the Vetasus I gave as prey to Kutsa, father-like, to succour him.
I was a worthy king to rule the worshipper, when I gave Tuji dear inviolable gifts.
I gave up Mrigaya to Shrutarvan as his prey because he ever followed me and kept my laws.
For Ayu’s sake I caused Vesha to bend and bow, and into Savya’s hand delivered Padgribhi.
I crushed Navavastva of the lofty chariot, the dasa, as the Vritra-slayer kills the fiends;
When straightway on the region’s farthest edge I brought the god who makes the lights to broaden and increase.
I travel round about borne onward in my might by the fleet-footed dappled horses of the Sun.
When man’s libation calls me to the robe of state I soon repel the powerful dasyu with my blows.
Stronger am I than Nabhus, I who slew the seven: I glorified with might Yadu and Turvasha.
I brought another low, with st
rength I bent his strength: I let the mighty nine-and-ninety wax in power.
Lord over all the streams that flow along the earth, I took the Sapta-sindhava as my own domain.
I, gifted with great wisdom, spread the floods abroad: by war I found for man the way to high success.
I set within these cows the white milk which no god, not even Tvashtr’s self, had there deposited, Much-longed-for, in the breasts, the udders of the cattle, the savoury sweets of mead, the milk and Soma juice.
Even so has Indra Maghavan, truly bounteous, sped Gods and men with mighty operation.
The pious glorify all these exploits, Lord of Bay Coursers, Strong, and Self-resplendent.
(Rig Veda 10.49; based on the translation by R.T.H. Griffith)
The general picture that emerges is that the Rig Vedic people, with their numerous tribes and clans, were located mainly in north-west India–Pakistan, extending from eastern and southern Afghanistan to the Yamuna. Some of the clans may have been located east of the Yamuna but that was not the primary location. Within this region, the concentration of clans seems to be between the Parushni or Ravi, and the Yamuna. The two rivers that are highly praised are the Sindhu (Indus) and Sarasvati. Before attempting to place the Rig Vedic people within an archaeological context, it is necessary to look at some other aspects of their culture.
At the same time, one should note that the Rig Veda is a single text, and a single text cannot be expected to provide complete information about a people or a culture.
KINGS
The kings, or leaders of the janas, were known as raja or rajan. Several such persons are mentioned in the Rig Veda, including Sudas and the ten kings of the Dasharajna. The danastutis refer to a number of rajas. Rajans may have been of different types, leading a number of clans, only one, or a part of one clan. Jana, vish, and gana are three terms used for the clan or group. Some have translated jana as tribe, vish as people or clan, and gana as lineage. However, jana seems to have been the term for the people in one clan or group, whereas vishah referred to all the people in the kingdom. There are some references to ganas headed by a ganapati or jyeshtha (elder) but these are not common. Janasya-gopa or gopati, ‘protector of cattle’, was another term used for the king or leader of the jana. Indra, the chief god, was also referred to as gopati. Most of the rajas probably controlled a very small area with flexible boundaries, or only controlled their own people, with no fixed territory. Sudas was perhaps fighting to establish a territory. One raja known as Kashu is said to have gifted ten kings to a rishi (Rig Veda, 8.5.38). Some passages refer to large palaces of the devas, and may reflect exaggerated accounts of royal palaces of the kings. The danastutis show that kings could possess wealth including cows, horses, chariots, gold, and other items. Some kings must have ruled over larger areas and may have been in the process of gradually bringing other areas under their control. The term samrat is mentioned, which later meant ‘emperor’. One passage has the term vishvasya bhuvanasya raja, ‘king of the whole world’, indicating that the concept of powerful kings was emerging. Kingship seemed to have been hereditary, though sometimes kings were elected or selected, probably from within the members of the royal family.
Kings made alliances and seemed to have formed confederacies to fight battles. The people or leaders made some kind of offerings to the king, as the term bali-bhrit, ‘paying tribute’, indicates. This may not have been official taxation but could be voluntary offerings. A survivor king, defeated in battle, must have presented wealth and gifts to the victor.
SABHA AND SAMITI
Sabha and samiti are two institutions referred to, considered to be assemblies of people who had a say in governance though evidence for this is unclear, at least in the Rig Veda. The two have been distinguished; the samiti is thought to represent all the people of a village while the sabha is a special group of the elite. The term sabheya (‘worthy of the sabha’), applied to a brahmana, has led to the view that it was a group of brahmanas and wealthy people but, in several passages, sabha is thought to refer to a house, hence its nature is uncertain. The sabha, which means ‘assembly’, also refers to a hall where people met for various activities, including to play dice. Another view is that the sabha was the place of meeting and the samiti was the people who met there. The role of these institutions in this early period is unclear. It would also be unreasonable to expect that the numerous tribes or clans, often at war with one another, had identical political or social systems, though there may have been some similarities.
WARS AND BATTLES
Numerous wars and battles were fought. Several kings and groups allied to fight major battles. The rajan led his warriors in battle. Yodha was the term for a warrior. The earliest term used in the Rig Veda for the class of warriors is rajanya. Kshatriya was also used and became more common later on. Rana was a term for battle, initially also meaning ‘joy of battle’.
Warriors fought from chariots, armed with bows and arrows. Arrows, known as shari, sharya, or sayaka, had a shaft probably made of tall canes or reeds, and were tipped with a sharp point made of bone or horn. Poison could be placed on the tip. Arrows were kept in a quiver (nishangin). These were the primary weapons, though other weapons, including spears and knives, were known. A lance (srika) and spear (srakti) were also used. Warriors wore some kind of armour or breastplate, which may have been made of thick cloth, leather, metal or a material reinforced with metal. A guard (hastaghna) was worn on the left arm to avoid friction from the bowstring. A helmet (shipra) was probably worn but the use of a shield is uncertain. Sling stones may have been used. Foot soldiers probably accompanied the charioteers though patti, the term for a foot soldier, occurs only in the later Samhitas. The term mushtihatya for a hand-to-hand fight or fighter was known.
Apart from major battles, raids to gain wealth, cows, or booty seem to have been common. There is some indication that warriors also fought battles on horseback but this has been doubted. Warriors used dhvajas or banners in battle, and some sort of martial music was played. Troops must have been organized into groups under leaders such as the vratapati or ganapati. The senapati was the leader of the army.
TERRITORY
The territory of a king was known as rashtra. At this time, the king probably did not own the land but this is unclear. Grants of land are not referred to. On the other hand, in a danastuti, kings are given to a rishi, which must have been along with the land they ruled.
The grama was the basic village unit or settlement. Though its exact nature is not known, it may have been similar to later villages. It is referred to in contrast with aranya or forest. Its animals and plants were different from those of the forest. Cattle returned to the village every evening, after grazing on the outskirts. The grama is thought to have had several families (kulas), who were part of a particular clan. Settlements had barricades or fortifications of some kind. Stone and metal (ayas) forts (pur) are mentioned, though it is more likely that fortifications consisted of simple barricades. Pur has also been interpreted in different ways, and may not have referred to forts at all. Metal forts are certainly impossible and some of the references seem to be metaphysical. Dehi, or defences consisting of earthworks or dikes, are referred to. Durga was another term used for a fort. There do not seem to have been any cities or, at least, they are not referred to. Wood and bamboo were used to make houses, probably along with thatch.
OFFICIALS
The purohita or chief priest was an important official associated with the king. Like Vishvamitra or Vasishtha, he could even organize a battle. The purohita performed prayers and sacrifices and guided the king in all his actions, including in war and battle.
The headman or leader of the village was known as the gramani. The vrajapati may have been the same as the gramani. The kula or family was a smaller unit, headed by the kulapati. There is a reference to a kulapati fighting in a battle under the leadership of a vrajapati. The senani or senapati must have headed the sena, the army or group of warriors. There are referen
ces to spies (spasha) and to messengers (duta).
LAWS
Dharma is the term used for law or custom but it is not clear what kind of laws existed. Laws must have differed in the various kingdoms. Highway robbers and cattle thefts were common. People prayed to Pushan to safeguard their journeys and together fought battles for cattle. Playing dice often led people into debt and ruin. A debtor may have had to serve the person he owed money to, if he could not repay the debt. An interesting hymn in the Rig Veda refers to ruin caused through playing dice.
SLAVERY
Dasis or female slaves were gifted, according to the danastutis, but dasas were not always slaves.
The terms seem to have been used in different ways—one for a category of people and the other
for slaves.
CHARIOTS
Ratha, or chariot, is thought to be different from anas (cart) though the distinction is not always clear. Sakata was another term for a cart. The ratha usually had two wheels (chakra), each with a rim, felly, spokes (ara), and nave (nabhya). The rim and felly together were known as nemi. The axle (aksha) was sometimes made of aratu wood. The body was known as kosha or vandura. Usually there were two horses, with a pole on each side, and a yoke. Reins and a bit seem to have been used. Sometimes, the ass (gardabha) and mule (ashvatari) were used in chariots but usually it was the horse. Rathas are often vehicles of the gods, and some references can again be seen in a metaphysical sense. Rathas with one wheel are mentioned, and possibly referred to the sun.