by Roshen Dalal
ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE VEDAS
The challenge in identifying the Rig Vedic culture with one or more of the archaeological cultures described above will be summarized in the conclusion to this book.
Chapter 9
Religion
Religion is the most important aspect of the Vedic texts. The earliest strand in Vedic religion is represented in the Rig Veda, which has several types of hymns. In some of them, there are references to various theories of creation. According to early hymns, creation was a result of a cosmic battle or of the cosmic separation of heaven and earth. Later hymns include the theory that all creation emerged from the sacrifice of Purusha (primeval man) or from some other form of sacrifice. Alternatively, there was creation through Hiranyagarbha, the golden egg or embryo, or through an unkown god (Ka) or Prajapati. A late hymn in the Rig Veda (10.129) ponders on creation, introducing an element of philosophical inquiry. One of its verses states:
No death was there, nor was there life immortal
Of day and night there was then no distinction
That One alone breathed windless by itself
Than that, forsooth, no other thing existed.
In early texts, there is no clear concept of a supreme creator. In some verses in the Rig Veda, Indra is seen as the ruler of all; in others it is Varuna. In the late hymns of the Rig, there is Prajapati, often identified with Brahma. Prajapati was the primeval man or Purusha.
The Atharva Veda too has several philosophical hymns on creation. Some of the myths in the Rig Veda are expanded in the Brahmanas. In the Shatapatha Brahmana, a myth of creation through sacrifice follows that of the great flood. After the flood, when Manu was the only survivor, he offered a sacrifice, from which Ida was born. From her, the human race came into being. In another myth in this Brahmana, Prajapati is responsible for creation, again through offering a sacrifice. In a third, and probably later, myth in the same text, it said that once nothing existed but water. The waters wanted to propagate their kind, and practised tapas, from which a golden egg (Hiranyagarbha) appeared. Prajapati emerged from this and created the earth, the middle regions, and the sky. Through further tapas, he created the devas (gods) from his mouth, and daylight was associated with them. Then, with the breath of life that is below he created the asuras, and night and darkness came into being. Another myth says that in the beginning there was asat (unreality, non-being). But in this were rishis, who were Prana (breath), and created seven Purushas, who then became Prajapati. Then he created Brahman, the threefold knowledge (trayividya). This veda (‘knowledge’) was the foundation from which Prajapati created water and then an egg, from which Agni, the earth, and other things came.
The Upanishads take the concept of creation to a new level, which is beyond the scope of this book.
THE GODS
IN THE RIG VEDA
Though a large number of deities are referred to, the text states that there are thirty-three gods: eleven in heaven, eleven on earth, and eleven in the waters or air. Based on this, Yaska, compiler of the Nirukta on the Vedic Samhitas, classifies the main Vedic deities into three categories: terrestrial, celestial, and atmospheric. Among the terrestrial deities are the rivers Sindhu, Vipasa, Shutudri, and Sarasvati; Prithivi, the earth; Agni, fire; Brihaspati; and Soma. Celestial deities include Dyaus, Varuna, Mitra, Surya, Savitri, Pushan, Vishnu, Vivasvat, the Adityas, Usha, Ratri, and the Ashvins. The atmospheric deities are Indra, Trita Aptya, Apam Napat, Matarishvan, Ahi Budhnya, Aja Ekapad, Rudra, the Maruts, Vayu-Vata, Parjanya, and Agni. Agni is a deity that belongs to several categories.
Other gods include Yama, Dhatr, Vidhatr, Tvashtr, Dhartr, Tratr, and Netr. Though female deities are not very important, many are mentioned apart from Sarasvati, Prithivi, and Usha. Ratri and Aranyani have separate hymns dedicated to them. Aditi was another female deity, considered the mother of the gods, while Diti seems to have been her counterpart. Varunani, Indrani, and Agnayi—the wives of Varuna, Indra, and Agni, respectively—are referred to. Sita, a goddess connected with agriculture, is prayed to for crops and blessings. Male and female deities who personify abstract nouns or qualities include Manyu, Shraddha, Anumati, Sunrita, Asuniti, and Nirriti (see below for more on these deities). Among other deities, Vastoshpati was the lord of the house while Kshetrasyapati was the lord of the fields. Deities such as the Rudras, Adityas, and Maruts were also worshipped in groups. Other groups of divine beings were Vasus and Ribhus. The Ribhus were skilful beings, who became deities because of their great feats.
There were also gandharvas and apsaras. The Rig refers to gandharva in the singular, an apsara being his wife. Gandharva is said to guard Soma in the celestial sphere. Apsaras are also mentioned in the plural while one apsara, Urvashi, is named in the text. Some hymns, mainly in Mandala 10, have a concept of one supreme being but, on the whole, the deities are personifications of nature, or of an attribute or ideal. At the same time, several hymns consider the various deities as aspects of one. Prajapati, Brihaspati, Ka, Hiranyagarbha, and Vishvakarma are some of the names by which a supreme deity is referred to.
Deities are also referred to in pairs. Mitra-Varuna and Dyava-Prithvi are often referred to together. Among other pairs are Indra-Varuna, Indra-Agni, Indra-Vayu, Agni-Soma, and Indra-Vishnu. Some hymns are dedicated to the Vishvedevas, which usually indicates a number of different deities but, at times, seems to refer to a specific group.
The gods are described in human form, with arms, legs, and bodies. Some are said to be earlier than the others, others the offspring of earlier deities. The gods cross the sky or atmosphere in their rathas (chariots), drawn by horses or other animals. They taste the offerings prepared at the sacrifices and confer blessings on the people who have made the offerings. They are powerful, and help their followers to overcome their enemies. The deities know what goes on in the world and want people to follow the right path. These deities are elaborated on in later texts.
There are numerous references to demonic beings, who may be purely mythical or real people of opposing groups. Danu’s son Vritra, who was defeated by Indra, is mentioned most frequently. Vala, who guarded a cave filled with cows, was driven out by Indra and his allies. Arbuda, the three-headed Vishvarupa, and Svarbhanu were others defeated by Indra. Some individuals referred to as Dasas were also Indra’s victims. These are believed to have been either kings of rival groups or mythical beings. The Panis were a particular group in this category.
Other beings are asuras, rakshas (rakshasas), and pishachas. While the latter two are usually demonic, in the Rig Veda, asura is often used interchangeably with deva, indicating a divine being. Yatu or yatudhana (probably sorcerer) are also mentioned.
SAMA VEDA
The Sama and Yajur Vedas are focused on sacrifices. They are the songbook and the prayer book for the practical use of the special priests, the udgatr and adhvaryu. The Sama Veda, as noted earlier, is composed almost entirely of verses selected from the Rig Veda and rearranged. Thus there are no different deities mentioned here but all Rig Vedic deities do not have the same importance in the Sama. The three main deities are Agni, Indra, and Soma, associated primarily with the sacrifice, though other Rig Vedic deities are mentioned in the hymns.
YAJUR VEDA
The Yajur Veda also has prayers to gods but the emphasis is different. The prayers are to be used during sacrifices. Prayers such as the series of hymns to Rudra are not found in any other Samhita. Rudra gained importance from this time onwards.
ATHARVA VEDA
The Atharva Veda has many unique and different features concerning religion. Some aspects of this were indicated in Chapter 1 while its information on diseases is dealt with in Chapter 11. Many of the deities are the same, including Agni and Indra, but their nature is different. Cosmological and philosophical concepts are mentioned too. The Atharva has the concept of a supreme god, identified with Prajapati, and also of a creative principle. Terms such as Brahman, asat, and tapas are found in the text. The concept of Rudra-Shiva is somewh
ere between that of the Rig Veda and the Shvetashvatara Upanishad. In different hymns, Kala, Kama, and Prana are described as the first cause of the universe. There are prayers to Rig Vedic deities, among which are hymns not found in the Rig. These include hymns to Varuna, the Ashvins, Prithivi, and others. The Shaunakiya text begins with a prayer to Vachaspati for divine knowledge. Other deities mentioned in this section are the waters (Apah), Indra, Agni, Brihaspati, Soma, Parjanya, Prithivi, Mitra, Varuna, the moon, and Surya, the sun. Kama, Kala, and Pushan are among the other Rig Vedic deities referred to. The text mentions some deities that are not known in the Rig, such as Arbudi, Nyarbudi, and Rohita. The Rohita hymns glorify a supreme being. In various other hymns, the ox, bull, cow, and vratya are each in turn glorified as the highest being. Sarva and Bhama, known in the Yajur, are also mentioned.
Magic and religion initially had the same aim. Magic spells are given, though these are not really different from the purpose and aim of the sacrificial ritual. One difference is that the gods are not necessarily invoked in these spells. The main aims of the Atharva are said to be to appease, to bless, and to curse. Some philosophical aspects are similar to those expounded in the Upanishads.
Ritual texts and great sacrifices also have some formulas for the priest to destroy enemies. Magic rites are found in most other parts of the ancient world. Some hymns (such as 4.16) combine two aspects: the first on the power and glory of god, the second on a magical rite.
BRAHMANAS AND ARANYAKAS
The Brahmanas have several creation legends. The old gods still existed but the focus in some texts was on different ones. Prajapati was seen as a supreme god in the Brahmanas. Rudra was an important deity from the Yajur onwards. As Bhutapati, in the Aitareya Brahmana, he became the god of cattle. By this time, he was developing into a complex god—the later Shiva. Vishnu became more important. In the Taittiriya Aranyaka, Vishnu is identified with Narayana. Gandharvas, apsaras, nagas, etc. were seen as semi-divine. Naga worship gained importance. Deva–asura wars began to be described. The concept of Brahman developed. In the Vedas, the term Brahman referred to prayer verses and formulas, and to some kind of spiritual power. It also referred to the trayi vidya or the first three Vedas. By the time of the Brahmanas and Upanishads, it came to signify the first and ultimate principle.
There are also some ethical principles. All activities which form part of daily life are considered a duty and a responsibility. Life has to be lived according to the customary norms and Vedic injunctions. Selflessness, prayer, and truthfulness are important qualities.
THE MANY GODS ARE ONE
In the Rig Veda, some hymns indicate that though the gods had different names, they actually represented one reality. This concept is further developed and brought out in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. In this text (3.9), it says that Vidagdha, son of Shakala, asks Yajnavalkya about the number of gods, and the latter says there are 303 and 3003 as given in the laudatory hymns, but then shows how these can be reduced to one. He also says that there are basically thirty-three gods, the others only being their manifestations. These thirty-three are the eight Vasus, eleven Rudras, twelve Adityas, along with Indra and Prajapati. The Vasus are aspects of nature, the Rudras are aspects of the mortal body or person, the Adityas represent the twelve months of the year; Indra represents the thunder cloud and thunderbolt, and Prajapati the sacrifice. The thirty-three gods can be reduced to six, which are fire (Agni), earth (Prithivi), the air (Vayu), the sky (Antariksha), the sun (Aditya), and heaven (Dyaus). He then reduces these to three, which are the three worlds (loka) in which all these are contained; then to two: matter (annam) and the life force (prana); then to one and a half, which is that (ayam) which blows (pavate); and finally to one, the cosmic prana that is Brahman.
DEITIES
The main Vedic deities are described here, while some hymns on creation and prayers to various deities are provided in Appendix II.
ADITI
A goddess in the Rig Veda, she is the mother of the Adityas, a group of gods, and is said to nourish and sustain all existence. There is no separate hymn to her but she is mentioned almost eighty times in this text. She is said to be bright and luminous, a supporter of all creatures, invoked in the morning, at noon, and at sunset. Her name means ‘unbinding’, ‘without bonds’, or ‘unbound’, hence Aditi is worshipped to provide freedom from the bonds of suffering. She is the sky and space or air, the mother, father, and son, all the devas, the five clans or tribes, and all that has been, and will be, born. In one passage in the Rig Veda, she is said to be both the mother and the daughter of Daksha. Yaska, in his Nirukta, comments that it is part of the nature of gods, that they can be born from each other. According to the Taittiriya Samhita, Aditi contains the whole world. In the Mahabharata and Puranas, she is the daughter of Daksha and wife of Kashyapa, the mother of the thirty-three devas, including twelve Adityas, eight Vasus, eleven Rudras, and two Ashvins. (Though thirty-three devas is a standard number, the lists of gods included in this differ.) As a goddess, one of the main characteristics of Aditi is that of motherhood, while the other is her connection with the Adityas, and therefore with light and the sun.
ADITYAS
A group of gods. In the Rig Veda, there are six hymns dedicated to them and they are mentioned in others. They are said to be seven or eight but six names are listed together: Mitra, Aryaman, Bhaga, Varuna, Daksha, and Amsha. The three most commonly mentioned are Mitra, Varuna, and Aryaman. In one hymn (10.72), Martanda is mentioned as the eighth Aditya. The Adityas are said to protect the universe, see the good and evil actions of people, and punish the wicked. They are bright, golden, animisha (unblinking) and provide a long life, good health, and offspring to their worshippers. The Atharva Veda mentions the eight sons of Aditi (8.9) while the Taittiriya Brahmana (1.1.9) lists eight Adityas: Mitra, Varuna, Aryaman, Amsha, Bhaga, Dhatr, Indra, and Vivasvat. The Shatapatha Brahmana refers to Martanda as the eighth Aditya, but, in some passages, mentions twelve Adityas, who can be identified with the twelve months. In the Mahabharata and some later texts, twelve Adityas are listed: Dhatr, Mitra, Aryaman, Shakra (that is, Indra), Varuna, Amsha, Bhaga, Vivasvat, Pushan, Savitr, Tvashtr, and Vishnu. Indra is said to be the most important, and Varuna the oldest and best. Various later texts provide different lists of Adityas, who later came to be worshipped along with the Navagraha (nine planets). They are specifically linked with Surya worship.
AGNAYI
A goddess mentioned in the Rig Veda, who is the wife of Agni.
AGNI
The personification of the sacrificial fire, Agni is the second most important god in the Rig Veda (the first being Indra) where over two hundred hymns are dedicated to him, while he is mentioned in many more. Agni is sometimes linked with other deities who are jointly worshipped, for instance Agni-Indra or Indra-Agni, Agni-Maruts, Agni-Soma, Agni-Varuna, Agni-Parjanya, and Agni-Surya. Agni-Soma together light up the sky and grant wealth, cattle, horses, and children.
His consort, who is briefly mentioned, is Agnayi. Adjectives used to describe Agni are related to sacrificial ceremonies, in which offerings of butter and ghi are made. Thus he is described as butter-backed, butter-faced, or butter-haired. He has sharp or burning jaws, golden or shining teeth, and resembles gold. His main food is wood or ghi (clarified butter) and he drinks melted butter. Sometimes, he drinks Soma. He removes darkness and brings light everywhere. He is brilliant and shines like the sun. His chariot is made of lightning, luminous and golden, and his horses are tawny and ruddy, but the path he makes in his journey is black. Agni has a threefold nature—born of heaven, men, and the waters—a precursor of the later trinity of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. He protects his worshippers behind one hundred metal walls, preserves them from calamities, and is the deliverer and friend of those who worship him. He bestows every kind of boon, particularly in the sphere of domestic welfare, offspring, and property. He is compared with various animals, including a bull, a calf (vatsa), and an agitated horse. Like an excited horse, A
gni can be tamed and pacified. He is also called an eagle of the sky and a divine bird, and is compared with various birds. Agni is the son of Dyaus and Prithivi, or of Tvashtr, or sometimes of other deities. At the same time, other gods were descended from him. As he was constantly reborn, Agni could be both old and new, and has many births. He is sometimes identified with other deities, particularly Mitra and Varuna. Agni, or individual Agnis, is specifically associated with some people and families, including Vasishtha, Angiras, Bhrigu, Bharata, Vadhryashva, Devavata, Divodasa, and Trasadasyu.
Agni takes on many forms, just as fire does, and exists wherever there is fire on earth, or lightning in the heavens. He is the god of fire sacrifices and of the domestic hearth. As such, he is also important in the ritual texts, the Sama and Yajur Vedas, and is frequently called the hotr or chief priest, and also ritvij, purohita, adhvaryu, and brahman (the priest of the Atharva). In him are the aspects of all the priests, and he is also a rishi. A passage in the Taittiriya Samhita says that Agni is the messenger of the devas, while Kavya Ushana (see below) or Daivya is the messenger of the asuras.
Agni is also referred to as Jataveda Agni and Agni Vaishvanara, among other names. The name Jataveda is mentioned over one hundred and twenty times in the Rig and is explained as one who knows the births of all. Agni Vaishvanara has a semi-independent status. The term Agni Vaishvanara occurs at least sixty times in the Rig Veda, and indicates the Agni that belongs to all. In the Shrauta Sutras, Vaishvanara is a special form of Agni.