by Roshen Dalal
As Agni is associated with the sacrificial ritual, he has an important role in the Sama and Yajur Vedas. Agni represents fire and is, at the same time, its personification. Numerous legends are narrated about Agni in the Mahabharata, Ramayana, and later texts. The term Agni has Indo-European roots, similar to the Latin ignis and the Slavonic agni. The sacred fire is also important in Zoroastrianism, another shared aspect.
AHI BUDHNYA
A deity in the Rig Veda, who is the serpent of the deep or of the atmospheric ocean, and is invoked as a divine being. In this text, his name is mentioned twelve times in hymns to the Vishvedevas. He is associated with Aja Ekapad, Apam Napat, and other deities. In the Vajasaneyi Samhita and Brahmanas, he is connected with Agni Garhapatya. In later texts, it becomes the name of Rudra or Shiva. In the Mahabharata, Ahi Budhnya is one of the eleven Rudras, and is also mentioned as one of the Maruts. According to the Vishnu Purana, Ahi Budhnya was a son of Vishvakarma, the divine architect.
AJA EKAPAD
A deity in the Rig Veda, he is associated with Ahi Budhnya and has been equated with the sun, or with a form of Agni. In one passage, he is invoked along with the ‘thundering Paviravi’, the daughter of lightning. Literally, his name means ‘the one-footed goat’, while the commentator Yaska explains it as ‘he who protects with one foot’. Other interpretations are ‘the one-footed driver or stormer’ or ‘the goat who goes alone’, indicating the moon, or ‘the unborn, who has only one foot’, meaning he who inhabits an isolated, mysterious world. It is also thought to refer to lightning, which is swift like a goat and strikes the earth with one foot (single streak). The god is referred to in the Atharva Veda, and is said to have made the two worlds firm. The name later evolved into Ajaikapad who, in the Mahabharata and Puranas, is one of the eleven Rudras. It is also a name of the god Shiva.
AMBIKA
The goddess Durga, so popular later on, is not known in the Rig Veda. One of her names, Ambika, appears in some Later Vedic texts. In the Taittiriya Aranyaka, Ambika is also called Durga Vairochani, Katyayani and Kanyakumari. Some other names associated with her, such as Uma Haimavati, or Kali, are mentioned in the Upanishads. Durga is fully described for the first time in the Mahabharata, and later in several Puranas.
AMSHA
A god in the Rig Veda, who is one of the Adityas, similar to Bhaga. The term occurs only twelve times in this text, and may not always refer to a god. In one passage, Agni is equated with Amsha. Amsha is mentioned in the Puranas both as an Aditya, and as a god of the Tushita group.
ANUMATI
Anumati, a minor goddess in the Rig Veda, literally means ‘the favour of the gods’. In the Atharva Veda and Vajasaneyi Samhita, she is a goddess of love, prayed to for children. In later texts, she is a lunar deity, and also a Shakti-devi, a personification of Shakti.
APAH
A group of deities, who in the Rig Veda, are water goddesses. Four hymns are dedicated to them, and they are mentioned elsewhere as well. They are mothers and wives, bestow boons, and come to the sacrifice. They follow the path of the gods and flow in channels, with the sea as their goal. Indra made channels for them with his vajra. They cleanse and purify worshippers and grant strength and immortality. Their waters are said to be filled with honey, and pleasing to the gods, indicating their link with Soma. They are also specifically mentioned as carrying ghi, milk, and honey, like the priests who carry Soma for Indra. Apah are later mentioned in the Mahabharata and Puranas.
APAM NAPAT
A deity in the Rig Veda, where one entire hymn is dedicated to him (2.35) and he is in addition mentioned in other hymns. He is the son of the waters, golden in form and appearance, always shining. He comes from a golden womb and shines in the waters without any fuel. His food is ghi and the vrishanah (steeds) carry him, swift as thought, through the waters. He is connected with rivers (nadya) and is sometimes equated with Agni. Apam Napat in the Avesta is a spirit of the waters.
ARAMATI
Aramati, literally ‘devotion’ or ‘piety’, is personified as a goddess in the Rig Veda. She is a minor deity in the Rig, and is similar to Armaiti, who represents loving devotion in Zoroastrianism.
ARANYANI
A goddess of the forest, who has one hymn dedicated to her in the Rig Veda. She is described as a spirit of the forest, who cannot be seen. Her voice is like that of a man calling his cattle, or of a tree falling. She does not come to the village but if one stays in the forest in the evening, she can be heard like a voice crying, far away. She is perfumed and fragrant, and the mother of wild things. Aranyani has some parallels with the Roman goddess Diana. She is not known in later times, though there are other goddesses associated with forests.
ARBUDI
In the Atharva Veda, Arbudi is a god who, along with Nyarbudi, is a companion of Indra. The two are prayed to for success in battle.
ARYAMAN/ARYAMA
In the Rig Veda, Aryaman is one of the Adityas, similar to Mitra. He is mentioned around a hundred times, usually with Mitra and Varuna, but has no exclusive hymns. His nature seems similar to Mitra. Aryaman is said to represent chivalry, honour, and nobility while Mitra incorporates the concepts of friendship, and of honouring promises and contracts. As an Aditya, he is connected with the sun and with light. Aryaman or Airyaman is also a yazata, a lesser deity in Zoroastrianism.
ASHVINS
The twin Ashvins are prominent in the Rig Veda, and are the most important deities after Indra, Agni, and Soma. Fifty hymns are dedicated to them, as well as parts of several others, and their name occurs more than four hundred times. They are said to be young but ancient, honey-hued, and with a golden brilliance. Their name indicates their connection with horses (ashva means ‘horse’). They ride in a three-wheeled golden chariot, drawn by horses or sometimes by deer, birds, buffaloes (kakuha), or a single ass. They are also known as Nasatyas, na-asatya, usually interpreted as ‘no untruth’. They are helpers in distress, and there are numerous stories of the people they helped. Particularly, they rescue people from the ocean, and also draw treasures out of the ocean. They rescued Bhujyu, son of Tugra, from the ocean (samudra) or from a water cloud (udameghe). In one passage, it is said that they rescued him in a ship with 100 oars, while others refer to flying boats or chariots. Bhujyu is also said to have been rescued after clinging to a log or branch (vriksha). They rescued and restored to life the sage Rebhu, who had been stabbed, tied up, and left in the waters for ten days and nine nights. They also rescued Vandana, either from a deep pit or from old age. They helped the rishi Atri Saptavadri when he was burnt in a fire, by healing and restoring him to health. Their help extended to the animal kingdom, and they rescued a quail who prayed to them from the jaws of a wolf.
Another story connected with the Ashvins is that of Rijrashva. He gave 101 sheep to a female wolf to eat and, therefore, was blinded by his father. He prayed to the Ashvins, who restored his eyesight. They are great healers of those on earth, and are the physicians of the gods. They protect their worshippers and prevent an early death. They restored the youth of the rishi Chyavana, a story mentioned in the Rig Veda, and elaborated on in the Shatapatha Brahmana. They cured Paravrij, who was both blind and lame. Vishpala, who had lost a leg in battle, was given a new one made of metal. They also gave a husband to Ghosha, a wife to Vimada, and a son to the wife of a eunuch. Another interesting story is of the blessings they bestowed on Kakshivat who belonged to the family of Pajra. Because of these blessings, 100 jars of sura (wine or honey) flowed ‘from a strong horse’s hoof, as from a sieve’ (1.116, 117). They also placed a horse head on the rishi Dadhyanch, son of Atharvan, who then revealed where the madhu (honey or mead) of Tvashtr was. There are many other such stories regarding them. The Ashvins were married to Surya (Suryaa), daughter of the sun god.
It is thought their name (Ashvin) and the fact that they were said to be owners of horses (ashva) was actually related to the term ashva in its sense as ‘rays of light’. Yaska, in his Nirukta (12.1), says that some considered
them to be heaven and earth, others day and night, while ‘legendary writers’ thought they were two kings. The Shatapatha Brahmana (4.1.5) considers them to be heaven and earth. However, their nature and the various kind actions they are said to have performed indicate that they may have been real people of the distant past. On the other hand, there are other twin gods in ancient cultures, some of whom have similar characteristics, pointing to the Ashvins’ evolution from ancient myths. Among ancient twin gods are Castor and Pollux of Greek mythology, the Lithuanian Asvieniai, the Latvian Dieva deli, the Alcis gods, the Roman Romulus and Remus, the Germanic Hengest and Horsa, and the Slavic Volos and Veles. Michael Shapiro, an American specialist in Slavic languages, points out some common aspects of several twin deities, which include their association with horses and their healing skills. Many of these twins were also associated with the sea, and were helpers of people. Castor and Pollux were associated with horses, and were widely worshipped by Greeks, later by the Etruscans and Romans, and even by the Celts; they were the special gods of sailors. The Lithuanian pair is depicted as twin horses, who draw the sun’s chariot. The Ashvins are frequently mentioned in the Mahabharata and Puranas.
ASHVINI
The goddess known as Ashvini, mentioned in the Rig, must be the same as Suryaa, the daughter of Surya and the wife of the Ashvins.
ASUNITI
A minor goddess in the Rig Veda, who occurs only in one passage (10.59), she is prayed to for strength and longevity.
BHAGA
In the Rig Veda, Bhaga is one of the Adityas. Usha (dawn) is his sister. One hymn in the Rig (7.41) is dedicated to his praise, though other gods too are mentioned. As an Aditya, Bhaga is associated with the sun; according to Yaska, he presides over the forenoon. The name means ‘dispenser’, ‘gracious lord’, or ‘patron’, and the god is considered the distributor of wealth and the bestower of divine blessings. He also presides over love and marriage. The French historian, musicologist, and Indologist A. Danielou interprets the name as representing the ‘inherited share’, which provides wealth and status. However, Bhaga could be derived from bogu, a term for god in Indo-European languages. Baga is a deity with a similar name in Zoroastrianism. In the Mahabharata, Bhaga was a member of the god Indra’s assembly. In some later texts, he is one of the eleven Rudras.
BHARATI
A goddess in the Rig Veda, she is mentioned in some hymns, usually along with Sarasvati and Mahi.
BRAHMA
In the Vedic Samhitas, many names are given to a creator god, one of which is Brahma. Other names of the creator are Vishvakarman, Brahmanaspati, Hiranyagarbha, and Prajapati. Brahma is mentioned in the Shatapatha Brahmana as the creator of the gods, and the source of all. In the Mahabharata, Brahma is said to be the same as Prajapati.
BRAHMANASPATI
In the Rig Veda, this is one of the names of a creator god. It is considered another Z name of Brihaspati.
BRIHADDIVA
A goddess in the Rig Veda, she is mentioned a few times and referred to as a mother. The Brihaddiva is also a river.
BRIHASPATI
A deity who has eleven hymns dedicated to him in the Rig Veda, and two more jointly with Indra. He is mentioned around one hundred and twenty times as Brihaspati and about fifty times as Brahmanaspati, which is considered one of his names. He is described in the Rig as being born from light in the highest heaven. He is said to drive away the darkness with thunder. He has seven mouths, seven rays, and 100 wings, and he is blue-backed. His voice is clear, he is bright and pure. His bow has rita or cosmic order as its string, his chariot is drawn by reddish horses. He is the friend of Indra, and associated with him in his actions. In some hymns, he is identified with Agni. In the Yajur Veda and Brahmanas, he is connected with Vedic rituals and invoked as a priest. The Maitrayani Samhita says that his shloka reaches heaven (1.190) and that chhandas or metre is his creation. In the Vajasaneyi Samhita, he is said to use the octosyllabic metre to win the gayatri metre. He is also praised in the Atharva Veda. In later times, Brihaspati was identified with the planet of the same name, equated with Jupiter, and became the lord of the planet. He is thus one of the Navagrahas or nine planets.
DAKSHA
In the Rig Veda Daksha is mentioned around six times as a deity, but otherwise is an adjective meaning ‘dexterous, strong, clever or intelligent’. In the Taittiriya Samhita, the gods are called daksha-pitarah, ‘fathers of daksha’. In the Shatapatha Brahmana (2.4.4), Daksha is identified with Prajapati. In later texts, Daksha had a very important role as the father of Sati, and of Aditi and other daughters who married Kashyapa and gave birth to all living beings.
DESHTRI
A deity mentioned in the Rig Veda (10.85). She is referred to here along with Matarishvan and Dhatr.
DEVAGANA
The gods (devas) are frequently mentioned together in the Rig Veda, as a group (gana).
DEVA-NETR
Literally, ‘the leader god’, he occurs in the Rig Veda (5.50), probably as an independent deity. He provides guidance to attain prosperity.
DEVANAM-PATNIH
A collective term for the wives of the devas, who are referred to in the Rig Veda and later texts. Varuni, wife of Varuna; Indrani, wife of Indra; and Agnayi, wife of Agni, are among those that this refers to.
DHARTR
Literally meaning ‘supporter’, this term is usually applied to various deities, including Indra, but in one place (7.35), he is an independent deity in the Rig Veda.
DHATA/DHATR
Dhatr, literally ‘creator’, appears about twelve times in the Rig Veda as a creator god. He is said to have created the sun, moon, heaven, earth, and air, and to be the lord of the world. According to the Naighantuka, he is a deity of the middle regions. In post-Vedic texts, he is the creator and preserver of the world, the equivalent of Prajapati or Brahma. In the Mahabharata and Puranas, Dhatr is also one of the Adityas. He is considered the same as Dhata. Dhatr is also later the name of other deities including Surya, Shiva, and Vishnu.
DHISHANA
A goddess in the Rig Veda, she seems to be connected with nourishment, particularly the kind received from the cow in the form of milk and butter.
DITI
A goddess associated with Aditi, Diti is referred to three times in the Rig Veda. In one passage, it is said that from their chariot in the sky, the gods Mitra and Varuna can see Aditi and Diti. This has been interpreted in various ways. The commentator Sayana says it refers to the indivisible earth and the creatures on it; others believe it could refer to all visible nature. In another passage, Agni is asked to ‘grant diti, and save from aditi’. These words may not refer to the goddess, and could mean ‘wealth’ and ‘penury’, respectively. Sayana however interprets it as ‘liberal giver’ (Diti) and ‘illiberal giver’ (Aditi). In a third passage, Diti is mentioned with Agni, Savitr, and Bhaga, and said to give that which is desirable. In the Later Vedic Samhitas, she is mentioned with Aditi. In the Atharva Veda, her sons are said to be the daityas, but there seems to be no negative connotation of daityas at this time. In the Mahabharata and Puranas, she was one of the daughters of Daksha, and was married to Kashyapa. Her children included several daityas.
DYAUS OR DYAVA
Dyaus is a term used both for the sky, and for the god of the sky or heaven. In some contexts, it also means day. He is called a roaring bull, and a black horse decorated with pearls—a poetic reference to the night sky. There is no separate hymn in the Rig Veda to Dyaus, but he is often associated with Prithivi, the earth; together, they are known as Dyava-Prithivi. Usha, the dawn, is said to be his daughter. Other descendants are the Ashvins, Agni, Parjanya, Surya, the Maruts, and the Angirasas. Dyaus is also referred to as an asura, which in the Rig was a term for a great god. Dyava-Prithivi have six hymns dedicated to them, and are mentioned in many others. Heaven and earth are celebrated together in many ancient cultures. In the Rig, they are called father and mother, or parents who sustain the world and all creatures in it. They are also
the parents of the gods, and they came from the head and feet of Purusha. Tvashtr made their forms though, according to the Atharva Veda, they were made by Vishvakarma. They are said to be wise and righteous. By the Later Vedic period, Dyaus had lost his importance. His counterpart in Greek mythology is said to be Zeus.
GANGA
The river Ganga, along with other rivers, is praised as a deity in one hymn.
GARUTMAN
The Rig Veda mentions a celestial deity Garutman, who has beautiful wings. He can be identified with the later Garuda, the vehicle of Vishnu. According to the Unadi Sutra, Garuda comes from the root ‘gr’, ‘to speak’. He thus represents sacred speech. In the Shatapatha Brahmana, Garuda is said to personify courage. In the Mahabharata, Garuda is said to be the same as Garutman. He is also known as Tarkshya. Garuda appears in Buddhist sculptures and, in Jainism, is the yaksha of the Tirthankara Shantinatha. A winged Garuda is associated with Surya images and is similar to Zoroastrian depictions of the Fravashi (divine aspect of an individual).