The Vedas

by Roshen Dalal

  The Vajasaneyi Samhita of the Shukla Yajur Veda provides prayers for the darshapurnamasa (new- and full-moon sacrifices); pindapitrayajna (offerings for pitris), which is a part of the former; the various fire sacrifices, including the laying of the fire, morning and evening sacrifices (agnihotra), and chaturmasya (four-monthly sacrifices); the Soma sacrifices, including animal sacrifices, vajapeya, and rajasuya; for the agnichayana, the building of the fire altar, which could take one year; the sautramani sacrifice; and the ashvamedha and purushamedha.

  The Taittiriya Samhita of the Krishna Yajur Veda has the prayers of only the first half of the Vajasaneyi Samhita. It also contains some explanations and descriptions of the sacrifices.

  By the time of the Later Vedic Samhitas, the whole sacrificial system was in place.

  PRIESTS

  There were four groups or categories of priests, each assigned to a different Samhita. The four categories were headed by the hotr for the Rig, the udgatr for the Sama, the adhvaryu for the Yajur, and the brahman for the Atharva.

  The number of priests was expanded to sixteen, and classified into four groups:

  hotr, maitravaruna, achavaka, gravastut

  udgatr, prastotr, pratihartr, subrahmanya

  adhvaryu, pratiprasthatr, neshtr, unnetr

  brahman, brahmnachchhamsin, agnidhra, potr

  Thus, elaborate yajnas had a total of sixteen ritviks (priests), at times even seventeen. These priests were assisted by other workers who carried out menial tasks. The purohita, spiritual adviser to the king, was usually a different priest though, as seen earlier, he may have carried out the functions of the hotr in Rig Vedic times. The priest needed to be an expert in the text. He had to have a knowledge of the rishi to whom it was revealed, the deity to which it was addressed, the metre (chhandas), as well as its ritualistic application (viniyoga). Several texts explained and provided guidance for these additional aspects (see Chapter 2).

  SHRAUTA AND GRIHYA SACRIFICES

  Sacrifices can be divided into two categories: shrauta and grihya. Shrauta rituals usually used three fires, or one of the three, instead of the domestic fire. The sacrificial rituals developed over time; the Brahmanas and Shrauta Sutras provide methods and steps which may not have existed at the time the Samhitas were composed. There were also variations in the way the sacrifices were performed. The Jamadagnis and Bhrigus had five divisions or layers of offerings, while others had four. Some invoked Tanunapat in the Apri hymns for the animal sacrifice, while others invoked Narashamsa. According to the Sutras, the basic aspects of the sacrifice are known as prakritis while the variations superimposed on these are vikritis. Thus the new- and full-moon sacrifices are the prakriti or model for all sacrifices of the ishti type (performed to obtain various results) while the agnishtoma is the prakriti for the Soma sacrifices. The elements of each sacrifice were classified as angas and pradhanas. Angas were aspects that provided the framework for the sacrifice, and which could be common to other sacrifices. Pradhanas were specific to a sacrifice.

  The type of prayer and formula varies from the simple to the complex. An item may be dedicated with the simple words: ‘This (or you) for Agni’ or ‘for Indra’ or ‘for Agni/Indra hail’! For the morning and evening agnihotra, milk is offered with the words ‘Surya is Light, Light is Surya, Hail’ (morning) and ‘Agni is light, Light is Agni, Hail’ (evening). Various actions and objects used are accompanied by sacrificial formulas. Taking a piece of wood, the sacrificer (yajamana) says, ‘This Agni is your igniter. Through it, may you grow and thrive! Through it, may we also grow and thrive.’ Items are also addressed with prayers that they do not injure the sacrificer or transform into something harmful. Items are also compared with the attributes of deities. For instance, the sacrificer ties a girdle made of hemp and grass while reciting, ‘You are the strength of Angiras, soft as wool, lend me strength.’

  The two sacrificial fire sticks, to create friction to ignite a fire, were said to be male and female, mother and father, who produced the child, Agni. Pururavas, Urvashi, and their child Ayu are identified with these sticks and their product in the Soma sacrifice. The sticks are twirled with the following formula: ‘I twirl you with the gayatri metre, I twirl you with the trishtubh metre, I twirl you with the Jagati metre’.

  A number of prayers were offered along with the sacrifice, for instance:

  You, Agni, are the protector of bodies, protect me!

  You, the giver of life, give me life.

  You, the giver of strength, give me strength.

  Agni, make complete whatever is incomplete in my body!

  (Vaj. 3.17)

  There are also question-and-answer sessions among the priests, indicating the mysteries of the universe. For instance, the hotr asks:

  Who wanders lonely on his way?

  Who is constantly born anew?

  What is the remedy for cold?

  What is the great corn vessel called?

  And the adhvaryu replies:

  The sun wanders lonely on its way,

  The moon is constantly born anew,

  Fire is the remedy for cold,

  The earth is the great grain-vessel.

  (Vaj. 23, 45–46; based on the translation by R.T.H. Griffith)

  There are, in addition, prayers that form magical spells, some elements of devotional prayers, and the use of sacred words with prayers such as ‘Om’ and ‘Svaha’. The sacrifices are not really about praying to the gods but more about compelling them, via rituals, to grant the wishes of the sacrificer.

  THE RITUAL

  The entire sacrificial ritual and the exact sequence of each step of the sacrifice is not fully explained even in the Sutras, but is found in later texts and oral traditions. Based on these, the main steps of the sacrifice can be reconstructed. Along with the priests, each Samhita had a special role in the sacrifice. The hotr verses of the Rig were different from the verses to be sung by the saman priests. The Rig Vedic verses to be used in the sacrifice had different categories. Among them were yajya (invocatory) and purovakya (invitation to the deity) verses. The hotr recited the yajya when the adhvaryu was about to throw the offerings into the fire. The shastra, translated as a song of praise or a weapon, was also from among the Rig verses.

  The adhvaryu, the Yajur priest, measured the ground, built the altar, and prepared the sacrificial vessels, as well as performing other rites. While doing this, he recited verses from the Yajur Veda. The adhvaryu was concerned with conducting rituals in the right way. He also uttered prose yajus or sacrificial formulas, which were different from the Yajur mantras. Samans were sung with Soma sacrifices and formed a complicated part of the ritual. The saman was divided into different parts to be sung by various priests. There were various methods for this but the most common was the following:

  The prelude or prastava, sung by the prastotr, who faced west. This was initiated with the mantra ‘hum’ (humkara).

  The udgitha, sung by the udgatr who faced north. This was introduced by the mantra ‘Om’.

  The pratihara, sung by the pratihartr, who faced south. This too began with the mantra ‘hum’; this could also be divided into two, the second part or upadrava being sung by the udgatr.

  The nidhana, the final part, sung by all together. The upagatrs accompanied the song with the word ‘ho’.

  Several rituals accompany the chants. The whole system of combining verses from different texts in the sacrificial ritual was quite complicated. Before beginning a stotra, the saman priests asked for permission from the brahman and Maitravaruna, who gave it with the words ‘om stuta’. The brahman recited one of the stomabhagas, a ritual formula.

  The stotra recitation began and, as it ended, the hotr would ask the adhvaryu’s permission to recite. The adhvaryu would assent and the hotr would recite a shastra (Rig Veda).

  According to some ritual sutras, before the chanting, the adhvaryu gave the udgatr some blades of grass, with the words, ‘You are the bed for coupling Rik and Saman for the sake of
procreation.’ The udgatr may have had to sing a sequence of chants, and to mark the number sung he would wind the grass blades around his fingers and later attach them to a pole.

  THE SACRIFICES

  The main sacrifices are described here.

  AGNICHAYANA

  Agnichayana is a Sanskrit term for the construction of a fire altar, where sacrifices can be performed. A detailed description of this is given in the Shatapatha Brahmana. The fire altar for the Soma sacrifice had five layers. According to this Brahmana, merely the act of constructing the altar includes all the sacrifices: the first layer is the Soma sacrifice, the second the rajasuya, the third the vajapeya, the fourth the ashvamedha, and the fifth the agnisava. At the lowest level, the heads of five sacrificial animals were buried and the bodies thrown into the water to be used in the clay for making the bricks. A man is included among the victims. The head of a man killed by lightning or by an arrow could be used. However, the Shatapatha says that this was not an ancient custom and, after some time, substitutes were used. The Vajasaneyi Samhita (Yajur Veda) provides prayers and mantras to be recited while constructing the altar—a process that took a whole year. It was built with a large number of bricks, many of them with special shapes and names. The fire altar also represented the body of Prajapati, the creator, and symbolized the universe. The commonest variety of altar was built in the form of a shyena, a hawk or large bird with outstretched wings. It could be built in a number of other shapes, including drona (trough) and ratha-chakra (chariot wheel). This elaborate altar was used in special Soma sacrifices.

  As seen earlier, the sacrifices or rituals can be divided into Shrauta, the more important and sacred sacrifices, and Grihya (household sacrifices). A further division is between havir and Soma sacrifices. Havir sacrifices are those where havis or oblations are offered, while Soma sacrifices must have offerings of Soma. Havir sacrifices include both Shrauta and Grihya sacrifices. Shrauta havir sacrifices include, among others, agnihotra, darshapurnamaseshti, chaturmasya, agrayana-ishti, and some animal sacrifices. Shrauta Soma sacrifices include the ekaha, ahina, sattra, and others. The main sacrifices and rituals are summarized here.

  SHRAUTA HAVIR SACRIFICES

  ESTABLISHING THE FIRE

  The sacrificial fire was an important part of daily rituals. For shrauta sacrifices, three sacred fires have to be first set up. This takes two days and has to be begun either on a new-moon day or a full-moon day, or in a particular season, depending on the caste of the person. Two temporary structures are made; in one, a round altar or hearth is made for the garhapatya fire, and a semicircular one to the south for the dakshina fire. In the other structure, a square altar is prepared for the ahavaniya fire. The yajamana, along with his wife, stays awake the whole night, listening to the music of flutes and lutes. In the morning, a fire is created by friction or borrowed from an already-lit fire. The garhapatya is first lit while remembering the pitris and more wood is added. From the garhapatya, the other two fires are lit. If, at any time, the fire is believed to have brought bad luck to the practitioner, it can be allowed to go out and relit using kusha grass as the fuel.

  There are daily, fortnightly, and four-monthly sacrifices among the shrauta, all offered to more than one deity.

  AGNIHOTRA

  The agnihotra is a sacrifice to Agni, that is, a fire sacrifice. It usually consists of offerings of milk, oil, or other substances to the fire. According to the Mahabharata, it is the best of the Vedic sacrifices. It consists of daily offerings to the garhapatya and ahavaniya fires. In this, the main offering is hot milk mixed with water. In the evening, the agnyupasthana (worship of Agni concluding the agnihotra) takes place, with prayers for the fire and the cow that supplied the milk. Performing the agnihotra is said to bring great merit and leads to a life in Pitriyana, the realm of the ancestors.

  In the Puranas, Agnihotra is personified as the son of Prishni and Savita.

  DARSHAPURNAMASESHTI

  The darshapurnamaseshti consists of the new- and full-moon sacrifices, which are of the ishti type. It is both a shrauta and a grihya rite. The new-moon sacrifice takes two days. The full-moon sacrifice is similar but lasts for one day. On the first day of the new-moon sacrifice, the sacrificer takes certain vows and prepares the fires. On the second day, the sacrificial cakes to be offered are made. The altar is prepared and the wood is laid on it while reciting the samidheni verses. Two agharas or libations of butter are added and the hotr is formally chosen by the adhvaryu. Various deities are invited to attend, ajya offerings are made to Agni and Soma, and cake offerings to Indra and Agni (or Agni and Soma at the full moon). Then an offering is made to Agni Svishtakrit in which all gods are invoked. The priests taste the offering and the libation of holy milk (ida). The pitris are invited and the dakshina is given. Then the anuyajyas or after-offerings are made to the barhis, Narashamsa, etc. Next is a prayer, and then the bundle of sacred grass is thrown in the fire.

  CHATURMASYA OR FOUR-MONTHLY SACRIFICES

  Three such four-monthly sacrifices are performed in the spring, monsoon, and autumn. The Maruts are the most important deities here, along with a set of deities that are different for each sacrifice. At the beginning of each sacrifice, Agni, Soma, Savitr, Sarasvati, and Pushan are worshipped. The wood used in each sacrifice is selected from a tree that blossoms at the time and, for the barhis, from the plants that sprout at the time. The first of the sacrifices is the vaishvadeva. After offerings to the five deities, a cake is offered to the Maruts, followed by a milk dish to the Vishvedevas, and a cake to Dyaus-Prithivi. The second is the Varuna-praghasa at the beginning of the rains. In this, a ram and an ewe are represented in dough, placed in milk, and offered to Varuna and the Maruts, respectively. This is believed to bring an increase in flocks. Karira fruits are offered for rain and a good harvest. An odd aspect of this sacrifice is that the wife of the sacrificer worships Varuna, confesses the names and number of her lovers (if any), and offers plates of gruel to the southern fire. The third is the sakamedha sacrifice, which takes place in autumn. The pitriyajna (ancestor rituals) form an important part of it, and the dakshinayana fire is prominent. An offering is made to Rudra Tryambika, who is then supposed to depart for the safety of the flocks. After this festival, an offering is made to two deified parts of the plough, the shuna-sirau.

  AGRAYANA-ISHTI

  The agrayana-ishti is another sacrifice of both shrauta and grihya rituals. In this, the first fruit of the harvest is offered twice a year. A barley cake is presented in spring and a rice cake in autumn, to Indra and Agni. Offerings are also made to the Vishvedevas, Dyaus, and Prithivi. The dakshina (gift to the priest) is the first calf born during the year.

  There are several other ishti-type sacrifices, which can be performed to fulfil desires or to gain one’s aims.

  ANIMAL SACRIFICES

  Animal sacrifices were performed both separately and as part of the Soma sacrifice.

  Nirudha-pashubandha is a sacrifice that can be performed by an ahitagni, that is, ‘one who has established the three fires via the correct procedure’. The first performance is before the sacrificer first eats meat. Then it can be repeated once or twice a year, during the uttarayana (northern course) of the sun. The sacrifice is similar to the new-moon sacrifice, except that an animal is offered to Indra instead of milk. The sacrificial post is erected on the edge of the altar, half within and half outside. The post is sanctified and mantras are recited. The animal is then tied to the post, bathed, and anointed with butter. After the ajya offerings, the usual new-moon sacrifice procedure is followed, including the preliminary offerings.

  The paryagni-karana then follows. In this, three circles are made around the animal with a fire brand, to sanctify it. As the animal is taken to the sacrificial spot, the sacrificer touches it with two spits, which will later be used to roast it; these are known as the vapashrapani. With these, he transfers the divine essence now embodied in the sacred animal, unto himself. Then mantras are recited praying for forgiven
ess of the sin of killing. Prayers are also offered stating that the animal does not die but goes straight to god. The animal is first strangled by the samitr priests. All present look at the ahavaniya fire, not at the victim. When the animal is dead, the caul or vapa is first removed, cooked, and offered to the gods. The blood is poured out for rakshasas and bhutas. The spits are then placed in the fire to be burnt. Three cows are given as dakshina.

  There is a second phase, which involves making the rice cake and cutting the body of the animals, after which offerings are made to gods and priests. After this are the eleven anuyajyas, where offerings are made to the barhis, dvaro devih, and other items, according to the order in the Apri hymns. Certain items related to the sacrifice, including the prastara or grass and the remaining ghi or butter, are thrown into the fire, whereas, the various implements are buried. This marks the completion of the sacrifice.

  SAUTRAMANI SACRIFICE

  This sacrifice is considered a havir yajna, not a Soma sacrifice. In this, sura (a type of wine) is used instead of Soma. The sacrifice is dedicated to Indra, the Ashvins, and Sarasvati. According to the associated legend, Indra drank too much Soma and became intoxicated. He was then cured by the Ashvins and Sarasvati. The sacrifice could be performed for various purposes: by a brahmana who wished for success; by a king who had lost his throne and wanted to regain it; by a Vaishya who wished to get rich.