Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar

by Simon Sebag Montefiore

  Hilger-Mayer, pp. 301–2, 312–3. MR, pp. 9–11. Kaganovich, pp. 58, 90. Kaganovich grandson recalling K’s telling of story: Joseph Minervin. Read-Fisher, p. 357. The Estonian Foreign Minister: Bohlen, p. 91.

  29: THE MURDER OF THE WIVES

  Conquest, Stalin: Breaker of Nations, p. 216. Lesser Terror, p. 33. Vasilieva, Kremlin Wives, pp. 103–11. Census: Volkogonov, p. 516. Molotov Letters, 23 Aug. 1930, p. 203. Kaganovich , p. 150. “Extra-curious about other leaders’ wives. Not that he was attracted to them as women”: KR II, p. 177. No one who contradicts Stalin keeps his wife: Sergo B, p. 148. Stalin’s Jewish mistresses: Sergo B, p. 211. Kalinina: Kremlin Wives, pp. 119–23. Larina, p. 231. Kollontai letters: RGASPI 558.11.749.14–15, 23, A. Kollontai to Stalin. Polina: Andreyev, Malenkov and Zhdanov were charged to find her another job: in November, she was appointed to run the Textiles-Haberdashery Administration of RSFR’s Light Industry Commissariat. On Abakumov and the 1939 case as well as the 1949 case, when the same characters were arrested again, against Zhemchuzhina: GARF 8131.32.3289.144, Rudenko speech at Beria’s trial. Khlevniuk, Circle, 257–8. Kostyrchenko, pp. 119–20. Mikoyan, pp. 298–9. Fitness instructor: RGASPI 82.2.904.80–1, Vlasik to Molotov 7 Feb. 1940.

  Natalya Poskrebysheva. Galya Poskrebysheva in Volkogonov, p. 165.

  Kavtaradze and Nutsibidze: Nutsibidze, vol. 2, pp. 96–100. Interview Maya Kavtaradze and Prof. Zakro Megrelishvili (son of Ketevan Nutsibidze): my thanks to both of them. “You all wanted to kill me”: Literaturnaya Rossiya, 12, 1989, pp. 17–20: interview Sergo Kavtaradze. Stalin orders Kaganovich to help Kavtaradze: Kaganovich Perepiska, p. 246. Medvedev, p. 311. Larina on release of Sofia Kavtaradze: pp. 234. Beria, p. 247.

  KGB Lit. Archive, pp. 22–48 including Beria’s report on Babel to Zhdanov. On French wrestling: GARF 8131.32.3289.117–18. The investigations by Rudenko into methods of interrogators Vlodzirmirski, Rodos, Shvartsman, Goglidze etc., 22 Mar. 1955. Jansen-Petrov, pp. 185–6. Pirozhkova, pp. 110–13. “Yezhov.” Parrish, pp. 94–8. Polianski, pp. 211–8, 244, 259–61. Eikhe: Testimony of Leonid Bashtakov in 1955 quoted in Vaksberg, Vyshinsky, pp. 167, 197–8, 350. Babel’s trial 26 Jan. 1940. Jansen-Petrov, p. 191. Ulrikh sentenced them on 1/2 Feb. The gala: 2 Feb. 1940. Marshal Yegorov shot on Red Army Day, 23 Feb. Spahr, p. 177. Yezhov’s sentencing: Moskovskie Novosti, no. 5, 30 Jan. 1994. Statement before Military Collegium, 3 Jan. 1940. Polianski, pp. 304–5. Jansen-Petrov, p. 188. Getty, pp. 560–2. Execution of Yezhov quoting N. P. Afanasev: Jansen-Petrov, pp. 188–9. Ushakov and Stukakov, pp. 74–5. Death certificate 4 February 1940 signed by a Lieut. Krivitsky but it is likely that Blokhin performed this important work himself. Thanks to Nikita Petrov.

  Rat: Yakovlev, Tsel zhizhni, p. 509. Stalin coins Yezhovschina ? Mgeladze, pp. 170–1; “scum,” p. 211; unbelievable evidence, p. 167; everyone confesses, pp. 168–73, 210–11. Stalin and Kaganovich on Babel: Kaganovich Perepiska, pp. 49, 189, 198. Black work and Blokhin: Nikita Petrov. Redens: Svetlana, Twenty Letters, p. 66. Beria, p. 90. Leonid Redens.

  30: MOLOTOV COCKTAILS

  Karpov, Rastrelyanniye Marshaly, pp. 325–6, 343. Kira Alliluyeva: Svetlana’s knees and Stalin’s note. OOY, p. 318. Volga kiss: Kenez, p. 166. “Stalin Molotov i Zhdanov o vtoroy serii Ivan Grozny,” Moskovskie Novosti, vol. 37, 7 Aug. 1988, p. 8. Galina, p. 96. Kozlovsky quoted in Karpov, p. 337.

  Finland: Erickson, Soviet High Command, pp. 541–8. Raanan, p. 14. Overy, pp. 55–7. K. A. Meretskov, Na sluzhbe narodu, pp. 171–7. Mikoyan: Bohlen, p. 93. KR I, p. 152. Voronov in Bialer (ed.), pp. 131–3. Spahr, 220–7. Voroshilov purge: Volkogonov in Harold Shukman (ed.), Stalin’s Generals, p. 317. Harold Shukman (ed.), Stalin and the Soviet-Finnish War, pp. xxi–xxvi, 29. (Stalin’s comment on forests is from the meeting of the Supreme Military Council, 14–17 Apr. 1940.) Also: RGVA 4.19.73.19–23, NKVD Maj. Bochkov Special Section of GUGB to Narkom Voroshilov and his reply 1 Feb. 1940. RGVA 4.19.75.1.12, Bochkov to Beria 28 Dec. 1939: Mekhlis’s letters to wife: p. 130. TsAMO RF 5.176705.1, Stalin to Mekhlis 9 Jan. 1940. RGVA 9.29.554.111, Mekhlis to Stalin 9 Jan. 1940. RGVA 9.29.554.76, Mekhlis to Stalin 9 Jan. RGVA 9.29.554.59, Mekhlis to Stalin 11 Jan. 1940. RGVA 9.29.554.62: the next day, Mekhlis reported the execution of a wounded officer, an NKVD commissar. RGVA 9.29.554.228, Mekhlis to Stalin and Voroshilov 12 Dec. 1939. Mekhlis’s courage: Gen. A. F. Khrenov and Adm. Kuznetsov in Mekhlis, pp. 132–3. RGVA 9.29.554.55, Mekhlis to Stavka, 12 Jan. 1940. RGVA 9.32.85.80, Kulik to Kuznetsov (deputy chief Police Dept.) 19 Dec. 1939. “Lapsing into panic . . .”: Dmitrov diary, 21 Jan. 1940. KR I, p. 154. Stalin birthday party: Dmitrov diary, 21 Dec. 1939. Valedinsky, “Vospominaniya,” p. 124. Pavel Aptekov and Olga Dudorova, “Peace and statistics of losses, Unheeded Warning and the Winter War,” Slavic Military Studies, vol. 10, no. 1, Mar. 1997, pp. 200–9. Read-Fisher, pp. 401–17. Red Army good for nothing: Bohlen, p. 60. Losses: statistics from Russian sources, O. A. Rzheshevsky and O. Vechvilayninen, Zimnaya voyna, 1939–40, vol. 1: Finland 48,243 killed; 43,000 wounded; 1,000 POWs; USSR 87,506 killed, 39,369 missing, 5,000 POWs. Thanks to Dr. M. Mjakov for this information.

  Whipping boy Voroshilov’s argument with Stalin: KR I, pp. 154, 185. Hysterical speech: Khrulev’s memoirs in Mekhlis, p. 135, Shukman, Stalin and Soviet-Finnish War, pp. xxi–xxvi, and Supreme Military Council, 14/17 Apr. 1940, pp. 29, 250, 252, 269. Volkogonov in Shukman, Stalin’s Generals (henceforth Stalin’s Generals), pp. 243, 365–6, and Rzheshevsky, p. 225. Voroshilov arts supremo: Mikoyan, p. 386. Mekhlis State Control Commissar: Khrulev, memoirs in Mekhlis, p. 140. Promotion of marshals: Erickson, Soviet High Command, p. 552. Timoshenko, youth and rise, dual command: Victor Anfilov in Stalin’s Generals , pp. 239–42. Savitsky in Babel, “My First Goose,” Collected Stories, p. 119. Brave peasant: Mikoyan, p. 386. Zhdanov’s role: Volkogonov, p. 368. Roskossovsky: Sovershenno Sekretno, 2000, 3. Also: Harrison Salisbury, 900 Days (henceforth 900 Days), p. 111. Marshal Golovanov quoted in MR, pp. 265–95. Budyonny Notes on request to Stalin about Serdich. Spahr, p. 230. Also: military purges, see Stalin’s Generals, p. 361. On 20 June, for example, Timoshenko appealed to Stalin on behalf of K. P. Podlas, one of the generals in the Far East; “From my side, I ask for his release.” Stalin agreed. RGVA 4.19.71.243, Timoshenko to Stalin 20 June 1940 and Stalin’s reply. Freed officers: RGVA 9.29.482.11–13.

  RGVA 4.18.54.1–499, Supreme Military Soviet of NKO, 21–7 Nov. 1937.

  Triumph of Tsaritsyn group and economic management meanderings: Mikoyan, pp. 339–44 and Kumanev (ed.), p. 22. Kulik’s saying: Voronov in Bialer (ed.), p 159. Kulik and Mekhlis’s power: 4 KR I, pp. 188, 200. V. E. Korol, A. I. Sliusarenko, I. U. Nikorenko, “Tragic 1941 and Ukraine: New Aspect of Problems,” Slavic Military Studies, vol. 11, no. 1, Mar. 1998, pp. 147–64.

  Parrish, “Yezhov,” p. 87. Karpov, Rastrelyanniye Marshaly, pp. 316–7, 324–5, 335–9, 340–4, 360–3. Kira Kulik was said to be having an affair with recently arrested director of the Bolshoi, Mordvinov. Mekhlis report “kompromat materials” July 1941, RGVA 9.39.105.412–17.

  Katyn Forest: RFE/RL Research Report, vol. 2, no. 4, 22 Jan. 1993, p. 22. Beria was at first one of the “troika” in charge of the liquidation but Stalin crossed out his name and put in Kobulov, probably because Beria was busy enough. It is certainly not evidence that Beria was opposed to the massacre since “the Theoretician” and “the Samovar” were his closest associates. Overy, p. 53. Stepan M., p. 197. Lesser Terror, p. 57; Parrish, “Yezhov,” pp. 83–5; “Serov,” Slavic Military Studies, vol. 10 Sept. 1997, p. 110. Sergo B, pp. 55, 320.

  KR I, p. 157.

  Baltics and Bessarabia: the very day of the French collapse, Timoshenko produced plans to move into the Baltics. RGVA 4.19.71.238, Timoshenko to Stalin and Molotov 17 June 1940. Beria, p. 104. Zhukov I, pp. 275–6: Zhukov commanded the liberation of Bessarabia. Parrish, “Serov,” p. 107. Burleigh, p. 535. Gorodetsky, pp. 34–5. (By the time of Stalin’s death, 175,000 Estonians, 170,000 Letts and 175,000 Lithuanians had been deported.) Stali
n’s ostensible wish for Germany to beat England: Sovershenno Sekretno, 2000, 3.

  Wagner: Yury Zhdanov. Spies: Gorodetsky, pp. 39, 50; on Golikov/Merkulov, pp. 53–4. Dmitrov diary, 20 Feb. 1941. Stalin’s knowledge adding to sorrow: Zubok, p. 24; never went looking, Modin, p. 24. Molotov quoted in Gorodetsky, p. 53.

  31: MOLOTOV MEETS HITLER

  RGASPI 82.2.1592, Molotov to Polina 13 Aug. 1940. This account of Molotov’s trip to Berlin is based on Berezhkov, pp. 24–42, inc. Hitler’s hint about meeting Stalin; MR, pp. 15–20, 145; Hilger-Mayer, pp. 321–7; Yakovlev in Bialer (ed.), pp. 117–22; Gorodetsky for Stalin-Molotov instructions and cables, pp. 58, 74, 76, 81, 83; Volkogonov, pp. 372–82; Beria, pp. 102–3; Zubok, p. 92; Read-Fisher, pp. 510–33. Merkulov/Himmler: Lesser Terror, p. 61.

  Meetings up to the war: “More afraid if I’d known”: Nikolai Baibakov. “Never call him by his name”: Emelianov, in Bialer (ed.), p. 113; Kuznetsov, pp. 95–7, 173; Yakovlev, p. 100. Dmitrov diary, 7 Nov. 1940.

  Gorodetsky, pp. 125–31. Also: Kazakov in Bialer (ed.), pp. 139–45; Yeremenko, pp. 146–51. 900 Days, pp. 55–7. Insomnia: Stalin to Churchill, Record of private talk between Prime Minister and Generalissimo Stalin after Plenary Session, July 17, 1945, Potsdam, PREM 3/430/7, Churchill and Stalin, FCO Historians, March 2002. Korol, Sliusarenko and Nikolarenko, pp. 147–64.

  Experiences in Civil War: Zhukov I, pp. 95–115, 148; on purges: Zhukov I, 137–40, 180–2.

  Gorodetsky, p. 228. Zhukov I, pp. 305–73.

  Kulik, Zhdanov and Howitzers: Vannikov in Bialer (ed.), pp. 153–9. Mad tanks and planes: Emelianov in Bialer (ed.), p. 109; Yakovlev, p. 101.

  Aircraft crashes: RGVA 4.19.14.1–74. Supreme Military Council, 16 May 1939. Stalin received complaint about the poor parts in aeroplanes: RGASPI 45.1.803, N. Sbytov to Stalin 14 Sept. 1940. This was only one of many others: but he was also informed closer to home. Vasily, p. 66: Vasily Stalin to Stalin 13 Nov. 1939. On Vasily and marriage to Galina: Svetlana RR. Vasily, pp. 81–3: Vasily Stalin to Stalin 4 Mar. 1941. Spahr, p. 230. Shukman, Stalin’s Generals, Ghosts, p. 366. Simonov, “Glazami,” p. 73. Lesser Terror, p. 30.

  Khlevniuk, Circle, pp. 265–7. Volkogonov, p. 374. Beria, p. 106. Medvedev, Stalin’s Men, p. 132. Medvedev, p. 310. MR, pp. 228–9. Kaganovich, pp. 29, 77–8. Kaganovich’s beads—Strakhov in Bialer (ed.), p. 443.

  Gorodetsky, pp. 146–51, 193, 197–9. Zubok, p. 83. MR, p. 21. Sudoplatov, pp. 118–9. Party: Leonid Redens and his brother Vladimir Alliluyev Redens. Svetlana/Stalin note: RGASPI 558.1.5164.

  Gorodetsky, p. 166. Zhukov thought Stalin believed Hitler was wrapped around his finger—hence his mysterious trust in the Führer. Simonov, “Zametki,” pp. 50–3.

  Felix Chuev (ed.), Sto Sorok Besed s Molotovym, p. 31. Meretskov, p. 202. Reginald Dekanozov, Some Episodes of the History of Soviet/German Relations Before the War. Nadya Dekanozova. Zhukov I, 321–36. Gorodetsky, pp. 207–34. Ehrenburg, Eve of War, pp. 275. Dekanozov stood between Stalin and Voroshilov—photo collection of Nadya Dekanozova. V. A. Nevezhin, “Stalin’s 5th May Address: The Experience of Interpretation,” Slavic Military Studies, vol. 11, no. 1, Mar. 1998, pp. 116–46.

  Khlevniuk, Circle, pp. 265–9, 274. Mikoyan, p. 344. Chadaev on Voznesensky, Beria and Malenkov, in Kumanev (ed.), pp. 383–442. Development of Zhdanov/Malenkov feud: see Jonathan Harris, “The Origins of the Conflict between Malenkov and Zhdanov 1939–1941,” Slavic Review, vol. 35, no. 2 (1976). Zhdanov was officially raised to Stalin’s Deputy in the Party Secretariat, the position held by Kaganovich during the early thirties. On 7 May, Stalin became the chief of the inner Buro of the Council of Commissars with Voznesensky, his Deputy, alongside Molotov, Mikoyan, Beria, Kaganovich, Mekhlis and Andreyev. Voroshilov, Zhdanov and Malenkov joined in the next few days. Beria supervised the security Organs as well as various industries. Stalin’s new clothes: Charkviani, p. 37.

  Nevezhin, pp. 116–46. Suvorov debate: Klaus Schmider, Slavic Military Studies, vol. 10, no. 2, June 1997, pp. 183–94; RUSI Journal 130, 2, June 1985, pp. 183–94; Victor Suvorov, “Who was planning to attack whom in June 1941?” B. V. Sokolov, “Did Stalin intend to attack Hitler?” Slavic Military Studies, vol. 11, no. 2, June 1998, pp. 113–41. Also on Vasilevsky: Spahr, p. 237. Gorodetsky, p. 207.

  Supreme Military Council 4 June 1941: Zhdanov, Malenkov and Budyonny discuss new propaganda documents, TsAMO RF 32.11302.20.84–6.

  Mikoyan, p. 377; Gorodetsky, pp. 212–16. Dekanozov, Episodes. Nadya Dekanozova.

  Hess: Mikoyan, p. 377, KR I, p. 155. Gorodetsky, pp. 234–8, 241–3. May paralysis: Zhukov I, pp. 341–6. Stalin to Koniev: Simonov in Brooks, Thank You C. Stalin, p. 251. Beria’s dungeons: N. G. Pavlenko, “G. K. Zhukov: Iz neopublikovanykh vospominanii,” Kommunist, 14, Sept. 1986, p. 99. Kulik—Voronov in Bialer (ed.), p. 209. Simonov, “Zametki,” pp. 51–3.

  32 : THE COUNTDOWN

  Last days: Zubok, p. 24. G. Kumanev, “22-go na rassvete,” Pravda, 22 June 1989. Account of meeting with Stalin threatening to shoot Timoshenko: Timoshenko in Kumanev (ed.), pp. 270–1. Zhukov I, pp. 332–69. Merkulov often reported with P. M. Fitin, Head of the NKGB’s Foreign Directorate. Izvestiya TsK KPSS, 4, 1990, p. 221, Merkulov to Stalin, 16 June 1941. Sudoplatov, pp. 120–1. Gorodetsky, pp. 296–8. Lesser Terror, pp. 260–3. Slavic Military Studies, June 1999, pp. 234. Molotov worried: Kuznetsov in Kumanev (ed.), p. 294. Khrushchev, Glasnost, p. 56.

  Yury Zhdanov. MR, p. 25. Mikoyan, pp. 377–81. Lesser Terror, pp. 260–5. Vaksberg, Vyshinksy, p. 219. Nekrasov, Beria, p. 399. See also: Vestnik, 10, 1989. Dmitrov diary, 21 June 1941. Gorodetsky, pp. 306–15. Overy, pp. 71–4. L. Trepper, Bolshaya igra, p. 125. Djilas, p. 123. Tiulenev in Bialer (ed.), p. 202. VP Naumov, 1941 god, Bk 2, p. 416. Medvedev, Neizvestnyi Stalin, chapter “Stalin and the War.” Mao Tse-tung warning from Chou En-lai, who heard it from Chiang Kai-shek: Dmitrov diary, 21 June 1941.

  See note 1, chapter 35.

  33: OPTIMISM AND BREAKDOWN

  The account of the Great Patriotic War in the two “War” sections is based on John Erickson’s two masterpieces, The Road to Stalingrad and The Road to Berlin; on Richard Overy’s outstanding narrative history, Russia’s War, on Harold Shukman’s excellent Stalin’s Generals, on memoirs such as those of Molotov, Mikoyan, Kaganovich, Khrushchev, Sergo Beria, Svetlana, Zhukov and other soldiers; on Budyonny’s Notes; on the Dmitrov diary; on the author’s research in the archives of RGASPI, RGVA, TsAMO, GARF; interviews with witnesses, and recent Russian histories such as Rubtsov’s biography of Mekhlis, Alter Ego Stalina. Last hours: Read-Fisher, pp. 612–42. Budyonny Notes. Anfilov on Budyonny, Stalin’s Generals, p. 62. Zhukov I, 2, 1–14, 369–71. Pavlenko, “Zhukov,” p. 99. Stalin’s logbook: IA, 1998. Hilger-Meyer, pp. 335–6. MR, pp. 34–7. Mikoyan, p. 388. Volkogonov, pp. 401–7. Bloch, p. 333. Gorodetsky, pp. 309–15. Mikoyan in Kumanev (ed.), pp. 24–5, Chadaev, pp. 409–12. Nina Budyonny. Yury Zhdanov. Mekhlis, p. 151. Ian Kershaw, Hitler: Nemesis, p. 394. Burleigh, p. 489. Kuznetsov in Bialer (ed.), pp. 195–6. Voronov quoted in Mekhlis, p. 153. Anfilov on Timoshenko, Stalin’s Generals, pp. 246–7. Natalya Poskrebyshev: Poskrebyshev told her Stalin called him to say the bombing had begun. Berezhkov in Bialer (ed.), pp. 216–8. Number of Soviet forces: 3 million refers to Western districts. The Soviet soldiers were inferior in numbers to the Germans but superior in equipment. Total number of Soviet soldiers: 5 million. Y. Kulikov, “Napadeniye Germanii na SSSR” in Mirovye voiny XX veka, bk. 3, pp. 133-86. Molotov says no and trains/supplies: Kaganovich, p. 88. Mikoyan, pp. 388–9. MR, p. 39. Press, Koniev: Brooks, Thank You C. Stalin, pp. 166, 168. Erickson, Stalingrad: pp. 101, 136–8. Chadaev in Kumanev (ed.), p. 42. Budyonny Notes, p. 49. Zhukov II, pp. 12–13. IA, 1998:4, 22, 23, 24 June 1941. Spahr, on Kulik, p. 265. Beria on phone / Stalin’s confidence: Dmitrov diary, 22 June 1941.

  RGVA 9.39.100.252, Bolotin, Chief of 4th Unit of Dept. of Special Units NKVD, to Zhukov 21 July 1941, and Mekhlis and Zhukov’s reply. Zhukov II, p. 14.

  RGV
A 9.39.99.329–39, Mikheev, Chief of 3rd Dept. NKO, to Mekhlis on Kulik, 15 July 1941. Report of Regimental Commissar Boldin in 900 Days, p. 29. Spahr on Kulik, p. 265.

  Mamsurova, 1988, pp. 12–13, quoted in Spahr, pp. 255–8.

  TsAMO RF 215.1184.48, 30. Mekhlis to all fronts, 22 July 1941. Mekhlis, pp. 179–83. KVS, 1991, nos. 14 and 65. Mikoyan, p. 541. Volkogonov, pp. 421–2. Erickson, Stalingrad, pp. 137–78.

  Spahr, p. 251.

  On Yakov, Chadaev in Radzinsky, p. 451. On red dress: Gulia Djugashvili, Ded, Otets, Mat i Drugie, p. 25. Artyom Sergeev. MR, pp. 210–11. Vasily, pp. 92–3. Zhenya Alliluyeva; interviews Kira Alliluyeva, Vladimir and Leonid Redens; Svetlana RR; OOY, p. 322. Svetlana places this call in August 1941 but Zhenya’s daughter Kira places it in the “first ten days.”

  Chadaev in Radzinsky, pp. 450–5. Chadaev based his account on conversations with Deputy Chief of Staff Vatutin. KR II, p. 7. Khrushchev, Memuary, pt. 6, p. 682, quoted in Beria, p. 255. Zhuykov II, pp. 33–40. Mikoyan, pp. 390–2. MR, p. 39. Stalin afraid: Mikoyan, p. 389. Stalin’s surprise at exclusion of Mikoyan: Mikoyan, pp. 391–2. Mikoyan in Kumanev (ed.), pp. 31–3. Chadaev in Radzinsky, pp. 453–5. Molotov quoted in Mikoyan, p. 390. MR, pp. 238–9. Sergo B, p. 324. Volkogonov, pp. 411, 424. On Mikoyan’s hiding, Stalin expected the worst; tension left Stalin’s face: Sergo B, p. 71. Chadaev in Radzinsky, p. 455, is based on the account of Bulganin who was probably not present. He was not a candidate Politburo member until 1946 though he was a member of the newly formed Sovnarkom Commission, to run daily government, with Voznesensky and Mikoyan so he may have joined the group. Neither Mikoyan nor Molotov mentions him. Stalin enjoyed our support again: Mikoyan, p. 392. Erickson, Stalingrad, pp. 171–82; Soviet High Command, p. 601. Beria, p. 111. KR I, p. 182.

  Zbarsky and S. Hutchinson, Lenin’s Embalmers, pp. 119–20. Rybin, Kto Otravil Stalina?, p. 38.

  Zhukov II, pp. 64–5. Erickson, Stalingrad, pp. 180–5. Overy, pp. 81–8.