2. Ibid., pp. 119–21; G. Stedman Jones, introduction to K. Marx and F. Engels, The Communist Manifesto (London, 2002 ed.), pp. 70–73; D. R. Kelley, “The Metaphysics of Law: An Essay on the Very Young Marx,” American Historical Review 83 (1978): 350–67.
3. Hunt, Engels, pp. 120, 123; Stedman Jones, introduction to The Communist Manifesto, pp. 50–53.
4. A. Briggs, Victorian Cities (Berkeley, 1993 ed.), p. 87; Hunt, Engels, pp. 78–102.
5. Stedman Jones, introduction to The Communist Manifesto, p. 64; Hunt, Engels, pp. 131–34.
6. Marx and Engels, The Communist Manifesto, pp. 196, 219, 258.
7. The intellectual borrowings, indebtednesses, adaptations, and denials are comprehensively discussed in Stedman Jones, introduction to The Communist Manifesto, pp. 50–177; G. Lichtheim, Marxism: An Historical and Critical Study, 2nd ed. (London, 1964), pp. 33–62; E. J. Hobsbawm, How to Change the World: Marx and Marxism, 1840–2011 (London, 2011), pp. 16–47.
8. Stedman Jones, introduction to The Communist Manifesto, pp. 99–119.
9. Hunt, Engels, pp. 14–17, 61.
10. Lichtheim, Marxism, pp. 3–20, 45; D. Priestland, The Red Flag: Communism and the Making of the Modern World (London, 2009), p. 45.
11. Hunt, Engels, pp. 41–46, 54–56, 123–25, 131–33; Stedman Jones, introduction to The Communist Manifesto, pp. 8–9, 38, 81–119, 140–44.
12. M. Howard, War and the Nation State (Oxford, 1978), pp. 9–11.
13. Marx and Engels, Communist Manifesto, pp. 223, 234, 241.
14. H. Schulze, States, Nations, and Nationalism: From the Middle Ages to the Present (Oxford, 1996), p. 257.
15. This paragraph is based on D. Cannadine, Class in Britain (London, 1998), pp. 2–3, 54–56, and the references cited there.
16. K. Marx and F. Engels, The German Ideology (New York, 1947), pp. 48–49.
17. Cannadine, Class in Britain, p. 3.
18. R. W. Miller, “Social and Political Theory: Class, State, Revolution,” in T. Carver, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Marx (Cambridge, 1992), p. 56.
19. G. Lukács, History and Class Consciousness (Cambridge, Mass., 1971 ed.), pp. 46–82; Priestland, Red Flag, pp. 110–11; Cannadine, Class in Britain, pp. 3–4.
20. Marx and Engels, Communist Manifesto, pp. 222, 258.
21. Ibid., pp. 220, 226; Miller, “Social and Political Theory,” p. 56.
22. Marx and Engels, Communist Manifesto, pp. 233, 244.
23. W. G. Runciman, Great Books, Bad Arguments: “Republic,” “Leviathan,” and “The Communist Manifesto” (Princeton, 2010), pp. 90–95.
24. Ibid., pp. 98–99.
25. Cannadine, Class in Britain, pp. 8–9.
26. Miller, “Social and Political Theory,” p. 62.
27. Ibid., pp. 96–97.
28. Cannadine, Class in Britain, pp. 9–10.
29. Marx and Engels, Communist Manifesto, p. 224.
30. Miller, “Social and Political Theory,” pp. 63–65.
31. Marx and Engels, Communist Manifesto, pp. 231, 247.
32. Ibid., p. 235.
33. S. Maza, The Myth of the French Bourgeoisie: An Essay in the Social Imaginary, 1750–1850 (Cambridge, Mass., 2003), pp. 2–6, 180, 194–95; D. Bell, “Class, Consciousness, and the Fall of the Bourgeois Revolution,” Critical Review 16 (2004): 323–51.
34. Runciman, Great Books, Bad Arguments, pp. 105–7; D. Wahrman, Imagining the Middle Class: The Political Representation of Class in Britain, c. 1780–1840 (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 273–89, 411–13.
35. Hunt, Engels, p. 115.
36. Historians have often been divided on political lines in their assessment of the veracity of Engels’s account. For an admiring view, see E. J. Hobsbawm, introduction to F. Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England (London, 1969 ed.), p. 15. For a hostile view, see W. H. Chaloner and W. O. Henderson, eds., The Condition of the Working Class in England (Oxford, 1958), pp. xxx–xxxi. For more balanced views, see Briggs, Victorian Cities, pp. 105–17; Hunt, Engels, pp. 103–17.
37. Marx and Engels, Communist Manifesto, pp. 199, 233; Miller, “Social and Political Theory,” pp. 62–63; Hunt, Engels, pp. 149–51.
38. Stedman Jones, introduction to The Communist Manifesto, p. 8.
39. Ibid., p. 15; Marx and Engels, Communist Manifesto, p. 258.
40. Runciman, Great Books, Bad Arguments, p. 91; A. Brown, The Rise and Fall of Communism (London, 2009), p. 20.
41. Marx and Engels, Communist Manifesto, p. 244.
42. Lichtheim, Marxism, pp. 373–75; Runciman, Great Books, Bad Arguments, pp. 15–16, 87–89.
43. The Red Republican, November 9, 1850, pp. 161–62.
44. Stedman Jones, introduction to The Communist Manifesto, pp. 14–19, 39–49; Marx and Engels, Communist Manifesto, p. 218; Hobsbawm, How to Change the World, pp. 176–80.
45. Stedman Jones, introduction to The Communist Manifesto, p. 25; Marx and Engels, Communist Manifesto, p. 203; Hunt, Engels, p. 279.
46. H. and J. M. Tudor, eds., Marxism and Social Democracy: The Revisionist Debate, 1896–1898 (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 85, 168–69; Lichtheim, Marxism, pp. 259–300; Brown, Rise and Fall of Communism, pp. 38–39.
47. Stedman Jones, introduction to The Communist Manifesto, pp. 18–21.
48. Priestland, Red Flag, pp. 59–60; Runciman, Great Books, Bad Arguments, pp. 107–8.
49. E. J. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, 1992), p. 130.
50. Marx and Engels, Communist Manifesto, p. 211.
51. Brown, Rise and Fall of Communism, pp. 1–10.
52. Marx and Engels, Communist Manifesto, p. 196; Lichtheim, Marxism, pp. 325–28; Hunt, Engels, pp. 273–76; H. Wada, “Marx and Revolutionary Russia,” in T. Shanin, ed., The Late Marx and the Russian Road (London, 1983), pp. 40–75; D. R. Kelley, “The Science of Anthropology: An Essay on the Very Old Marx,” Journal of the History of Ideas 45 (1984): 245–62.
53. Priestland, Red Flag, p. 29; Brown, Rise and Fall of Communism, p. 49. The evolution of Lenin’s thought on these matters can be traced in The Development of Capitalism in Russia (1899), What Is to Be Done? (1902), and One Step Forward, Two Steps Back (1904).
54. Lichtheim, Marxism, pp. 330–43; Brown, Rise and Fall of Communism, pp. 32–41; Priestland, Red Flag, pp. 76–77.
55. Brown, Rise and Fall of Communism, pp. 51–52.
56. K. Kautsky, The Dictatorship of the Proletariat (Ann Arbor, 1964 ed.), pp. 19–20, 140; Hunt, Engels, p. 360; Lichtheim, Marxism, p. 270; Brown, Rise and Fall of Communism, pp. 52–54, 78.
57. S. Davies, Popular Opinion in Stalin’s Russia: Terror, Propaganda and Dissent, 1934–1941 (Cambridge, 1997), p. 139; Brown, Rise and Fall of Communism, pp. 59, 67; Priestland, Red Flag, pp. 93–94, 170.
58. Priestland, Red Flag, pp. xxvi, 139, 157–60, 206; Brown, Rise and Fall of Communism, pp. 2, 60–64.
59. J. Riddell, ed., Founding the Communist International: Proceedings of the First Congress, March 1919 (New York, 1987), pp. 222–32; Priestland, Red Flag, p. 113.
60. Priestland, Red Flag, p. 107; Brown, Rise and Fall of Communism, pp. 78–84.
61. C. S. Maier, Recasting Bourgeois Europe: Stabilization in France, Germany, and Italy in the Decade After World War I (Princeton, 1975), passim.
62. Hobsbawm, How to Change the World, pp. 344–84.
63. Priestland, Red Flag, pp. 454, 462, 480; T. Judt, Ill Fares the Land (New York, 2010), p. 236.
64. D. Cannadine, ed., The Speeches of Winston Churchill (Harmondsworth, 1990), pp. 303, 339.
65. M. Leffler, For the Soul of All Mankind: The United States, the Soviet Union and the Cold War (New York, 2007), p. 98; E. Foner, The Story of American Freedom (New York, 1998), p. 253; Priestland, Red Flag, pp. xxiv, 230, 233, 325, 379.
66. D. Cannadine, Making History Now and Then: Discoveries, Controversies and Explorations (London, 2008), pp. 97–100.
67. Priestland, Red Flag, pp. xix�
��xx.
68. R. Mitter, A Bitter Revolution: China’s Struggle with the Modern World (Oxford, 2004), p. 159; Marx and Engels, Communist Manifesto, p. 263, note 25; Priestland, Red Flag, pp. 252–58; Brown, Rise and Fall of Communism, p. 100.
69. Priestland, Red Flag, p. 237; Judt, Ill Fares the Land, pp. 88–90.
70. Hansard, House of Lords, July 6, 1966, column 1136; Priestland, Red Flag, pp. 328–35, 342; Brown, Rise and Fall of Communism, pp. 240–43, 268–77.
71. Priestland, Red Flag, pp. 353–57, 375, 383, 391–98.
72. J. H. Kautsky, Communism and the Politics of Development: Revisionist Myths and Changing Behavior (New York, 1968), p. 216; Brown, Rise and Fall of Communism, pp. 3, 606–7.
73. R. Aldous, Reagan and Thatcher: The Difficult Relationship (New York, 2012), p. 179; M. Thatcher, The Downing Street Years (London, 1993), p. 463.
74. Runciman, Great Books, Bad Arguments, pp. 13–14, 95.
75. Brown, Rise and Fall of Communism, pp. 10, 616; Runciman, Great Books, Bad Arguments, pp. 91, 113–14.
76. Cannadine, Class in Britain, p. 2; Stedman Jones, introduction to The Communist Manifesto, p. 5.
77. E. J. Hobsbawm, Interesting Times: A Twentieth-Century Life (London, 2002), pp. 56, 127.
78. V. Kiernan, “Notes on Marxism in 1968,” in R. Miliband and J. Saville, eds., The Socialist Register, 1968 (London, 1968), pp. 190–95. Initially, this generation also included such figures as the young J. H. Plumb and the young Hugh Trevor-Roper, who “accepted certain fundamental tenets of Marxist dogma, believing in the omnipotence of economics and the inevitability of class struggle.” A. Sisman, Hugh Trevor-Roper: The Biography (London, 2010), p. 202.
79. E. J. Hobsbawm, “The Historians’ Group of the Communist Party,” in M. Cornforth, ed., Rebels and Their Causes (London, 1978), pp. 21–47; R. Samuel, “British Marxist Historians, 1880–1980,” New Left Review, no. 120 (1980): 42–55; H. Kaye, The British Marxist Historians: An Introductory Analysis (Cambridge, 1984), pp. 7–22; Kaye, The Education of Desire: Marxists and the Writing of History (London, 1992), pp. 18–30.
80. A. L. Morton, A People’s History of England (London, 1938); M. Dobb, Studies in the Development of Capitalism (London, 1946). See also Kaye, Education of Desire, pp. 116–24; Kaye, British Marxist Historians, pp. 23–50; P. M. Sweezy, ed., The Transition from Feudalism to Capitalism: A Symposium (New York, 1954); R. H. Hilton, ed., The Transition from Feudalism to Capitalism (London, 1976).
81. Hobsbawm, “Historians’ Group,” p. 23. For two other influential books published at this time, which treated particular episodes in English history from a Marxist perspective, see H. Fagan, Nine Days That Shook England: An Account of the People’s Uprising in 1381 (London, 1938); H. Holorenshaw, The Levellers and the English Revolution (London, 1939). Holorenshaw was a pseudonym for Joseph Needham.
82. E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (Harmondsworth, 1968), p. 11.
83. Kaye, Education of Desire, pp. 68, 70; E. J. Hobsbawm, “Marxist Historiography Today,” in C. Wickham, ed., Marxist History-Writing for the Twenty-First Century (Oxford, 2007), p. 180.
84. R. Hilton and H. Fagan, The English Rising of 1381 (London, 1950); R. H. Hilton, Bond Men Made Free: Medieval Peasant Movements and the English Rising of 1381 (London, 1973); Hilton, Class Conflict and the Crisis of Feudalism: Essays in Medieval Social History (London, 1985); Kaye, British Marxist Historians, pp. 81–95.
85. C. Hill, The English Revolution of 1640 (London, 1940); Hill, The Century of Revolution, 1603–1714 (London, 1961); and for a similar argument, see also R. H. Tawney, “The Rise of the Gentry, 1558–1640,” Economic History Review 11 (1941), pp. 1–38. For discussion and analysis, see Kaye, British Marxist Historians, pp. 103–16; P. Zagorin, “The Social Interpretation of the English Revolution,” Journal of Economic History 19 (1959): 376–401; L. Stone, The Causes of the English Revolution, 1529–1642 (London, 1972), pp. 26–43; R. C. Richardson, The Debate on the English Revolution Revisited (London, 1988), pp. 98–133.
86. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, p. 11. For a similar argument, see J. Foster, Class Struggle and the Industrial Revolution: Early Industrial Capitalism in Three English Towns (London, 1974).
87. E. J. Hobsbawm, “The Formation of British Working-Class Culture” and “The Making of the Working Class, 1870–1914,” both in his Worlds of Labour: Further Studies in the History of Labour (London, 1984), pp. 176–213.
88. Hilton, Bond Men Made Free, p. 112; Kaye, British Marxist Historians, pp. 75–76.
89. E. J. Hobsbawm, “The Crisis of the Seventeenth Century,” in T. H. Aston, ed., Crisis in Europe, 1560–1660 (London, 1965), pp. 5–58; Hobsbawm, “The Seventeenth Century in the Development of Capitalism,” Science and Society 24 (1960): 97–112.
90. G. Rude, Revolutionary Europe, 1783–1815 (London, 1964); Rude, Europe in the Eighteenth Century: Aristocracy and the Bourgeois Challenge (London, 1972); Rude, The French Revolution (London, 1988).
91. E. J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution: Europe, 1789–1848 (London, 1962).
92. G. Lefebvre, The Coming of the French Revolution, 1789 (Princeton, 1947); Lefebvre, The French Revolution, 2 vols. (New York, 1962–64); A. Souboul, The Parisian Sans-Culottes and the French Revolution, 1793–4 (Oxford, 1964); Souboul, The French Revolution, 1787–1799 (London, 1974); Souboul, A Short History of the French Revolution, 1789–1799 (London, 1977). For a helpful survey, see G. Ellis, “The ‘Marxist Interpretation’ of the French Revolution,” English Historical Review 93 (1978): 353–76.
93. Bell, “Class, Consciousness, and the Fall of the Bourgeois Revolution,” pp. 331, quoting J. P. Bertaud, La Révolution armée: Les Soldat-Citoyens et la Révolution Française (Paris, 1979), p. 31.
94. Stone, Causes of the English Revolution, pp. ix, 36–39; Cannadine, Making History Now and Then, pp. 237–42; E. Hobsbawm, “May 1968,” in Hobsbawm, Uncommon People: Resistance, Rebellion and Jazz (London, 1998), pp. 213–22; B. Moore, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston, 1966).
95. G. Katsiaficas, The Imagination of the New Left: A Global Analysis of 1968 (Boston, 1987); G. Stedman Jones, “The Meaning of the Student Revolt,” in A. Cockburn and R. Blackburn, eds., Student Power: Problems, Diagnosis, Action (Harmondsworth, 1969), pp. 25–56; Stedman Jones, Outcast London: A Study in the Relationship Between Classes in Victorian London (Harmondsworth, 1984 ed.), pp. xii–xiv; C. Lin, The British New Left: A Cultural History, 1957–77 (Edinburgh, 1993); D. Dworkin, Cultural Marxism in Post-War Britain: History, the New Left and the Origins of Cultural Studies (Durham, N.C., 1977).
96. See especially G. E. M. de Ste. Croix, The Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek World from the Archaic Age to the Arab Conquests (London, 1981).
97. M. Mollat and P. Wolff, The Popular Revolutions of the Late Middle Ages (New York, 1973); R. Cazelles, “The Jacquerie,” and S. K. Cohn Jr., “Florentine Insurrections, 1342–1385, in Comparative Perspective,” both in R. H. Hilton and T. H. Aston, eds., The English Rising of 1381 (Cambridge, 1984), pp. 74–83, 143–64; S. K. Cohn Jr., “Popular Insurrection and the Black Death: A Comparative View,” in C. Dyer, p. Coss, and C. Wickham, eds., Rodney Hilton’s Middle Ages: An Exploration of Historical Themes (Oxford, 2007), pp. 188–204; C. Wickham, “Memories of Underdevelopment: What Has Marxism Done for Medieval History, and What Can It Still Do?,” in Wickham, Marxist History-Writing, pp. 37–38.
98. R. Hilton, introduction to T. H. Aston and C. H. E. Philpin, eds., The Brenner Debate: Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in Pre-Industrial Europe (Cambridge, 1985), pp. 5–9.
99. Wickham, “What Has Marxism Done for Medieval History?,” p. 42; P. Anderson, Passages from Antiquity to Feudalism (London, 1974); Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London, 1974). For a similar Marxist interpretation, see also V. Kiernan, State and Society in Europe, 1550–1650 (Oxford, 1980).
100. P.
Anderson, “The Notion of Bourgeois Revolution,” in his English Questions (London, 1992), pp. 105–8; R. B. Morris, “Class Struggle and the American Revolution,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 19 (1962): 3–29.
101. H. Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society in Industrializing America: Essays in American Working-Class and Social History (New York, 1976); Gutman, Power and Culture: Essays on the American Working Class (New York, 1987); M. H. Frisch and D. J. Walkowitz, eds., Working-Class America: Essays on Labor, Community and American Society (Urbana, Ill., 1983); S. Wilentz, Chants Democratic: New York and the Rise of the American Working Class (New York, 1984); Wilentz, “Against Exceptionalism: Class Consciousness and the American Labor Movement, 1790–1920,” International Labor and Working Class History 26 (1984): 1–24; G. McNall, The Road to Rebellion: Class Formation and Populism, 1865–1900 (Chicago, 1988); L. Fink, In Search of the American Working Class: Essays in American Labor History and Political Culture (Urbana, Ill., 1994).
102. S. E. Ross, Francisco I Madero: Apostle of American Democracy (New York, 1955); C. C. Cumberland, The Mexican Revolution: Genesis Under Madero (Austin, 1952); J. Womack, Zapata and the Mexican Revolution (New York, 1968); J. M. Hart, Revolutionary Mexico (Berkeley, 1987); A. Knight, “Revisionism and Revolution: Mexico Compared to England and France,” Past and Present, no. 134 (1992): 164–65.
103. D. Koenker, Moscow Workers and the 1917 Revolution (Princeton, 1981); S. A. Smith, Red Petrograd: Revolution in the Factories, 1917–1918 (Cambridge, 1983); R. G. Suny, The Baku Commune, 1917–1918: Class and Nationality in the Russian Revolution (Princeton, 1917); Suny, “Toward a Social History of the October Revolution,” American Historical Review 88 (1983): 31–52.
104. See, for example: A. Walder, “The Re-Making of the Chinese Working Class, 1949–1981,” Modern China 10 (1984): 3–48; I. Katznelson and A. R. Zolberg, eds., Working-Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, 1986); Z. Lockman, “Imagining the Working Class: Culture, Nationalism and Class Formation in Egypt, 1899–1914,” Poetics Today 15 (1994): 157–90.
105. E. J. Hobsbawm, “From Social History to the History of Society,” in Hobsbawm, On History (London, 1997), pp. 85–87; Hobsbawm, “Marxist Historiography Today,” p. 187.
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