The Undivided Past

by David Cannadine

  48. Stansell, Feminist Promise, pp. 154, 162; E. Goldman, Anarchism and Other Essays (New York, 1969 ed.), p. 239.

  49. Stansell, Feminist Promise, pp. 194–95; Beauvoir, Second Sex, pp. xxi–xxii, 267.

  50. A. Oakley, Sex, Gender and Society (London, 1972), p. 170; L. Segal, Why Feminism? Gender, Psychology, Politics (London, 1999), p. 39.

  51. L. Davidoff, “Gender and the Great Divide: Public and Private in British Gender History,” Journal of Women’s History 15 (2003): 11–27; M. P. Ryan, “The Public and the Private Good: Across the Great Divide in Women’s History,” Journal of Women’s History 15 (2003): 10–27; Ryan, Women in Public Between Banners and Ballots, 1825–1880 (Baltimore, 1990).

  52. Vickery, “Golden Age to Separate Spheres?” pp. 402–14; O. Hufton, “Women in History: Early Modern Europe,” Past and Present 51 (1983): 126; J. Bennett, “History That Stands Still: Women’s Work in the European Past,” Feminist Studies 14 (1988): 269–83; Bennett, “Medieval Women, Modern Women: Across the Great Divide,” in D. Aers, ed., Culture and History, 1350–1600: Essays on English Communities, Identities and Writing (London, 1992), pp. 147–75; B. Hill, “Women’s History: A Study in Change, Continuity, or Standing Still,” Women’s History Review 2 (1993): 5–22; J. Bennett, “Women’s History: A Reply to Bridget Hill,” Women’s History Review 2 (1993): 173–84.

  53. Davidoff and Hall, Family Fortunes, pp. 29–30; D. Cannadine, Making History Now and Then: Discoveries, Controversies and Explorations (London, 2008), pp. 97–109.

  54. Wahrman, “ ‘Middle-Class’ Domesticity Goes Public,” pp. 399–403; A. Clark, The Struggle for the Breeches: Gender and the Making of the British Working Class (London, 1995), pp. 179–273; J. Melching, “Advice to Historians on Advice to Mothers,” Journal of Social History 9 (1979): 44–63; L. Kerber, “Separate Sphere, Female Worlds, Woman’s Place: The Rhetoric of Women’s History,” Journal of American History 75 (1988): 9–39; J. Bennett, “Medieval Women in Modern Perspective,” in Smith, Women’s History in Global Perspective, vol. 2, p. 170; J. Cadden, Meanings of Sex Difference in the Middle Ages: Medicine, Science and Culture (New York, 1993); K. Harvey, “The Substance of Sexual Difference: Change and Persistence in Representations of the Body in Eighteenth-Century England,” Gender and History 14 (2002): 202–23; Harvey, “The Century of Sex? Gender, Bodies and Sexuality in the Long Eighteenth Century,” Historical Journal 45 (2002): 899–916.

  55. Vickery, “Golden Age to Separate Spheres?” pp. 385–90; P. Branca, “Image and Reality: The Myth of the Idle Victorian Woman,” in M. Hartman and L. Banner, eds., Clio’s Consciousness Raised: New Perspectives on the History of Women (New York, 1974), pp. 179–91; M. J. Peterson, “No Angels in the House: The Victorian Myth and the Paget Women,” American Historical Review 89 (1984): 693; L. Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707–1837 (London, 1992), pp. 237–81; M. Berg, “Women’s Property and the Industrial Revolution,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 24 (1993): 235–50.

  56. Vickery, “Golden Age to Separate Spheres?” p. 392; S. Alexander, “Women, Class and Sexual Differences in the 1830s: Some Reflections on the Writing of Feminist History,” History Workshop Journal 18 (1984): 130–31.

  57. Bennett, “Medieval Women in Modern Perspective,” p. 158.

  58. J. T. Wood, “A Critical Response to John Gray’s Mars and Venus Portrayals of Men and Women,” Southern Communication Journal 67 (2002): 203–5; T. Hames, “The Message for Earthlings: Men Aren’t Martians and Women Aren’t Venusians,” Times (London), September 5, 2005.

  59. Guardian Unlimited, May 3, 2003; N. Walter, “Prejudice and Evolution,” Prospect (June 2005): 34–39; C. Fine, Delusions of Gender: How Our Minds, Society and Neurosexism Create Difference (London, 2005); R. Jordan-Young, Brain Storm: The Flaws in the Science of Sex Differences (Cambridge, Mass., 2010).

  60. G. Bock, “Challenging Dichotomies: Perspectives on Women’s History,” in K. Offen, R. R. Pierson, and J. Rendall, eds., Writing Women’s History: International Perspectives (Bloomington, Ind., 1991), p. 7.

  61. Beauvoir, Second Sex, pp. xxiv–xxv; Hines, Brain Gender, pp. 213–14.

  62. Wood, “Critical Response,” pp. 205–6; D. T. Rodgers, Age of Fracture (Cambridge, Mass., 2011); p. 153; S. M. Evans, The Tidal Wave: How Women Changed America at Century’s End (New York, 2003), p. 153.

  63. G. Vlastos, “Does Slavery Exist in Plato’s Republic?,” Classical Philology 63 (1968): 291–95; E. V. Spelman, “Hairy Cobblers and Philosopher-Queens,” in B.-A. Bar On, ed., Engendering Origins: Critical Feminist Readings in Plato and Aristotle (Albany, N.Y., 1994), pp. 3–24.

  64. E. V. Spelman, “Who’s Who in the Polis,” in Bar On, Engendering Origins, pp. 99–125.

  65. R. W. Connell, “The Big Picture: Masculinities in Recent World History,” Theory and Society 22 (1993): 597–623; Connell, Masculinities (Cambridge, 1995), esp. pp. 77–81; E. A. Rotundo, American Manhood: Transformations in Masculinity from the Revolution to the Modern Era (New York, 1993); J. Tosh, “What Should Historians Do with Masculinity? Reflections on Nineteenth-Century Britain,” History Workshop Journal 38 (1994): 179–202; G. L. Mosse, The Image of Man: The Creation of Modern Masculinity (New York, 1996).

  66. A. Shepard, Meanings of Manhood in Early Modern England (Oxford, 2003), pp. 2–3; author’s emphasis.

  67. E. Power, “The Position of Women,” in C. G. Crump and E. F. Jacob, eds., The Legacy of the Middle Ages (Oxford, 1926), pp. 401–33; Bennett, “Medieval Women in Modern Perspective,” pp. 143–48.

  68. D. G. Neal, The Masculine Self in Late Medieval England (Chicago, 2008), pp. 1–11, 241–53; D. M. Hadley, “Introduction: Medieval Masculinities,” in Hadley, ed., Masculinity in Medieval Europe (London, 1999), pp. 6–8.

  69. Hufton, Prospect Before Her, pp. 492–513; Mendelson and Crawford, Women in Early Modern England, pp. 301–44.

  70. Shepard, Meanings of Manhood, pp. 1–5; K. Harvey, “The History of Masculinity, Circa 1650–1800,” Journal of British Studies 44 (2005): 296–311.

  71. Vickery, “Golden Age to Separate Spheres?,” p. 390; J. Tosh, “Masculinities in an Industrializing Society: Britain, 1800–1914,” Journal of British Studies 44 (2005): 337.

  72. Greer, Female Eunuch, pp. 25, 369.

  73. N. Jay, “Gender and Dichotomy,” Feminist Studies 7 (1981): 38–56; Bock, “Challenging Dichotomies,” pp. 1–23; M. Wiesner-Hanks, “World History and the History of Women, Gender, and Sexuality,” Journal of World History 18 (2007): 55.

  74. J. M. Faragher, Women and Men on the Overland Trail (New Haven, 1979), pp. xi, 3, 14–15; Faragher, “History from the Inside Out: Writing the History of Women in Rural America,” American Quarterly 33 (1981): 537–57.

  75. Beauvoir, Second Sex, pp. xx-xxi.

  76. Scott, “Fantasy Echo,” pp. 285–87.

  77. Walters, Feminism, p. 90; R. Milkman, “Women’s History and the Sears Case,” Feminist Studies 12 (1986): 394–95; M. Minow, “Learning to Live with the Dilemma of Difference: Bilingual and Special Education,” Law and Contemporary Problems 48 (1984): 160; J. W. Scott, Parité! Sexual Equality and the Crisis of French Universalism (Chicago, 2005), pp. 51–58.

  78. Alexander, “Women, Class and Sexual Differences,” p. 126; Rodgers, Age of Fracture, pp. 148–49; S. Kent, “Worlds of Feminism,” in Smith, Women’s History in Global Perspective, vol. 3, p. 275.

  79. Scott, Gender and the Politics of History, pp. 167–69.

  80. Friedan, Feminist Mystique, pp. 525–26; Greer, Female Eunuch, pp. 13–26, 353–71; Greer, Whole Woman, pp. 236–43; Stansell, Feminist Promise, pp. 253–54.

  81. Hufton, Prospect Before Her, p. 495.

  82. Evans, The Feminists, pp. 15–16; Offen, European Feminisms, pp. 50–76; B. G. Smith, Changing Lives: Women in European History Since 1700 (Lexington, Mass., 1989), pp. 93–133; O. Hufton, “Women in Revolution, 1789–96,” Past and Present, no. 53 (1971): 90–108; Hufton, Prospect Before Her, pp. 462–90, 495.

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sp; 83. Evans, The Feminists, pp. 23–32; D. Reynolds, One World Divisible: A Global History Since 1945 (New York, 2000), pp. 308–9; J. S. Chafez and A. G. Dworkin, Female Revolt: Women’s Movements in World and Historical Perspective (Totowa, N.J., 1986), p. 218.

  84. E. Sarah, “Towards a Reassessment of Feminist History,” Women’s Studies International Forum 5 (1982): 519–24.

  85. Smith, Changing Lives, pp. 348–49; Stansell, Feminist Promise, pp. 108–9, 121–22.

  86. Offen, European Feminisms, pp. 144–81; Smith, Changing Lives, pp. 349–50; Evans, The Feminists, pp. 246–53.

  87. Evans, The Feminists, pp. 211–28.

  88. Ibid., pp. 46–47; Stansell, Feminist Promise, pp. 123–24.

  89. Steinbach, Women in England, pp. 273–74; S. S. Holton, Feminism and Democracy: Women’s Suffrage and Reform Politics in Britain, 1900–1918 (Cambridge, 1986), p. 7.

  90. Steinbach, Women in England, pp. 285–92.

  91. Ibid., p. 269.

  92. Ibid., pp. 224–25, 270.

  93. Ibid., pp. 250–59.

  94. Evans, The Feminists, pp. 124–37; Steinbach, Women in England, pp. 249, 276; Stansell, Feminist Promise, pp. 136–37.

  95. Smith, Changing Lives, pp. 302–13; L. A. Tilly, “Women’s Collective Action and Feminism in France, 1870–1914,” in L. A. Tilly and C. Tilly, eds., Class Conflict and Collective Action (Beverly Hills, Calif., 1981), pp. 207–31.

  96. Evans, The Feminists, pp. 250–52; Offen, European Feminisms, pp. 257–61; Smith, Changing Lives, pp. 365–68; H. H. Alonso, introduction to J. Addams, E. G. Balch, and A. Hamilton, Women at The Hague: The International Conference of Women and Its Results (Urbana, Ill., 2003 ed.), pp. v–xl.

  97. Evans, The Feminists, pp. 188–231; Reynolds, One World Divisible, p. 308.

  98. Reynolds, One Word Divisible, p. 309; Stansell, Feminist Promise, pp. 179–81.

  99. Friedan, Feminine Mystique, pp. 423–27; J. Meyerowitz, “Beyond the Feminine Mystique: A Reassessment of Postwar Mass Culture, 1946–1958,” Journal of American History 79 (1993): 1455–82.

  100. L. Segal, Is the Future Female? (New York, 1987), pp. 43–55.

  101. B. Linden-Ward and C. H. Green, Changing the Future: American Women in the 1960s (New York, 1993), p. 79.

  102. Walters, Feminism, pp. 110–12.

  103. R. Morgan, “Introduction: The Women’s Revolution,” in Morgan, ed., Sisterhood Is Powerful: An Anthology of Writings from the Women’s Liberation Movement (New York, 1970), p. xiii; R.-M. Lagrave, “A Supervised Emancipation,” in F. Thebaud, ed., A History of Women in the West, vol. 5 (Cambridge, Mass., 1994), pp. 466–77.

  104. L. B. Iglitizin and R. Ross, eds., Women and the World, 1975–1985: The Woman’s Decade (Santa Barbara, Calif., 1986).

  105. Stansell, Feminist Promise, pp. 355–56; D. Russell and N. van de Ven, preface to Russell and van de Ven, eds., The Proceedings of the International Tribunal on Crimes Against Women (Millbrae, Calif., 1976), p. xv; R. Morgan, “Prefatory Note and Methodology,” in Russell and van de Ven, ed., Sisterhood Is Global: The International Women’s Movement Anthology (New York, 1984), p. xii.

  106. Reynolds, One World Divisible, pp. 686–88.

  107. Scott, Gender and the Politics of History, pp. 2–3, 15–27; Steinbach, Women in England, pp. 3–4; R. Morgan, “Introduction: New World Women,” in Morgan, ed., Sisterhood Is Forever: The Women’s Anthology for a New Millennium (New York, 2003), p. lv.

  108. Stansell, Feminist Promise, pp. 21–22, 195–96, 206.

  109. Scott, Gender and the Politics of History, pp. 188–89; L. F. Brown, Apostle of Democracy: The Life of Lucy Maynard Salmon (New York, 1943), p. 256.

  110. Greer, Female Eunuch, p. 11.

  111. Reynolds, One World Divisible, p. 312.

  112. Rodgers, Age of Fracture, p. 150.

  113. Walters, Feminism, p. 105; bell hooks, Feminist Theory from Margin to Center (Boston, 1984).

  114. Stansell, Feminist Promise, pp. xii, xvii.

  115. Greer, Female Eunuch, pp. 12–13, 77–78; Friedan, Feminist Mystique, pp. 519–26; Stansell, Feminist Promise, pp. 213–16, 234–36, 253–58; Reynolds, One World Divisible, pp. 311–12.

  116. J. Olcott, “Preface to The Greatest Consciousness-Raising Event in History: International Women’s Year and the Challenge of Transnational Feminism” (unpublished paper, Shelby Cullom Davis Center for Historical Studies, Princeton University, February 26, 2010).

  117. Walters, Feminism, p. 117.

  118. Stansell, Feminist Promise, p. xvii.

  119. Rodgers, Age of Fracture, p. 178; J. Dean, Solidarity of Strangers: Feminism After Identity (Berkeley, 1996), p. 1.

  120. See, for example, the varied views expressed in AHR Forum, “Revisiting ‘Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis,’ ” American Historical Review 113 (2008): 1344–1430.

  121. Scott, Only Paradoxes to Offer, p. 160; Scott, “Fantasy Echo,” pp. 285–90.

  122. Bennett, “Medieval Women,” p. 171.

  123. M. Nussbaum, “The Professor of Parody,” New Republic, February 22, 1999, pp. 37–45; Walters, Feminism, pp. 140–41.

  124. Rodgers, Age of Fracture, pp. 11, 61–64, 146, 1564–56; Scott, Only Paradoxes to Offer, pp. 11–13, 172–75; Stansell, Feminist Promise, p. 395; J. Halley, Split Decisions: How and Why to Take a Break from Feminism (Princeton, 2006), p. 10.

  125. Beauvoir, Second Sex, p. xx.

  126. D. Haraway, “A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s,” in L. Nicholson, ed., Feminism/Postmodernism (London, 1990), p. 197.

  127. Greer, Whole Woman, pp. 4, 13.

  128. For some suggestive comments on this subject in the British case, see B. Harrison, Finding a Role? The United Kingdom, 1970–1990 (Oxford, 2010), pp. 237–39.

  129. Stansell, Feminist Promise, p. xix.

  130. Rodgers, Age of Fracture, pp. 164–74.

  131. Reynolds, One World Divisible, pp. 318–29, 400–401, 660; Walters, Feminism, pp. 123–31; N. R. Keddie, “Women in the Middle East Since the Rise of Islam,” in Smith, Women’s History in Global Perspective, vol. 3, pp. 94–106.

  132. Greer, Whole Woman, pp. 3–20.

  133. Morgan, Sisterhood Is Forever, p. lv; Reynolds, One World Divisible, pp. 686–87; A. Wolf, “Working Girls,” Prospect, April 2006, pp. 28–33.

  FIVE: RACE

  1. R. Knox, The Races of Men: A Fragment (London, 1850). The enlarged edition of 1862 is revealingly subtitled A Philosophical Inquiry into the Influence of Race over the Destinies of Nations. For Knox’s life and career, see I. Rae, Knox: The Anatomist (London, 1964); K. Stephen, Robert Knox (London, 1981). For Knox’s thought, see M. D. Biddiss, “The Politics of Anatomy: Dr. Robert Knox and Victorian Racism,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 69 (1976): 245–50; E. Richards, “The ‘Moral Anatomy’ of Robert Knox: The Interplay Between Biological and Social Thought in Victorian Societal Thought,” Journal of the History of Biology 22 (1989): 373–436; P. Mandler, “The Problem with Cultural History,” Cultural and Social History 1 (2004): 96–103; Mandler, The English National Character: The History of an Idea from Edmund Burke to Tony Blair (London, 2006), pp. 40, 74.

  2. R. Richardson, Death, Dissection and the Destitute (London, 1987), pp. 131–43.

  3. Knox, Races of Men, p. v; G. L. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution: A History of European Racism (New York, 1978), pp. 67–70.

  4. Knox, Races of Men, pp. 65–66, 245; Biddiss, “Politics of Anatomy,” p. 250.

  5. R. Blake, Disraeli (London, 1966), pp. 201–5, 258–60; B. Disraeli, Tancred, or the New Crusade (London, 1882 ed.), p. 149; Disraeli, speech of February 1, 1849, quoted in H. Odom, “Generalizations on Race in Nineteenth-Century Physical Anthropology,” Isis 58 (1967): 9.

  6. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution, pp. 51–58.

  7. N. Painter, The History of White People (New York, 2010), pp. 182, 195.

  8. I. Berlin, Four Essays on Liberty (London, 1969), p.
106; M. Biddiss, introduction to Biddiss, ed., Images of Race (Leicester, 1970), p. 12.

  9. Compare, for example, Mosse, Toward the Final Solution, pp. xi–xvi; G. M. Fredrickson, Racism: A Short History (Princeton, 2002), pp. 17–47.

  10. D. Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (Ithaca, N.Y., 1966), pp. 70–72; Brion Davis, Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World (Oxford, 2006), pp. 40–47.

  11. F. M. Snowden Jr., Blacks in Antiquity: Ethiopians in the Greco-Roman Experience (Cambridge, Mass., 1970); Snowden, Before Color Prejudice: The Ancient View of Blacks (Cambridge, Mass., 1983); L. A. Thompson, Romans and Blacks (London, 1989); E. S. Gruen, Rethinking the Other in Antiquity (Princeton, 2011); I. Hannaford, Race: The History of an Idea in the West (Washington, D.C., 1996), pp. 17–85.

  12. C. Kidd, The Forging of Races: Race and Scripture in the Protestant Atlantic World, 1600–2000 (Cambridge, 2006), p. 3; Acts of the Apostles 17:26.

  13. Quoted in Hannaford, Race, p. 96.

  14. Quoted in N. Stepan, The Idea of Race in Science: Great Britain, 1800–1960 (London, 1982), pp. 1–2.

  15. Kidd, Forging of Races, pp. 25–26; Fredrickson, Racism, pp. 17–19, 26–28.

  16. D. Abulafia, The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean (London, 2011), pp. 216–19, 477–83, 569–70; K. J. P. Lowe, “Introduction: The Black African Presence in Renaissance Europe,” in T. F. Earle and K. J. P. Lowe, eds., Black Africans in Renaissance Europe (Cambridge, 2005), p. 2; K. J. P. Lowe, “Representing Africa: Ambassadors and Princes from Christian Africa to Renaissance Italy and Portugal, 1402–1606,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th. ser., 17 (2007): 401–28; Painter, White People, pp. 34–39.

  17. Fredrickson, Racism, pp. 18–22, 29–33, 43–45.

  18. Ibid., p. 6.

  19. J. Chaplin, “Race,” in D. Armitage and M. Braddick, eds., The British Atlantic World, 1500–1800 (Basingstoke, 2002), pp. 154–66; Kidd, Forging of Races, p. 54.