Norse Mythology

by Oliver Laine

  Loki seems to share the other gods’ penchant for engaging in extramarital affairs; the most important of these liaisons is with Angrboda, a female giant. From this union, three offspring are born, none of which can properly be referred to as completely human: the monstrous wolf Fenris, the great serpent Jörmungandr, and Hel, the “dread queen” of the underworld.

  Aside from these children – two of whom will become directly responsible for the death or maiming of gods such as Týr and Thor – Loki is also to be held directly responsible for the death of Baldr, which means that he has a direct hand in precipitating Ragnarök.

  It was for these deeds and many others – including his wholesale disrespect of the gods when they gathered for a banquet – that Odin and Frigg, who were guided by wisdom and foreknowledge respectively, allowed for Loki to be bound and punished in a uniquely gruesome way.

  One of Loki’s sons – the stories are unclear on which – is turned into a wolf and turned loose to maul his brother to death. Then Loki is bound with his dead son’s intestines in a cave beneath the earth, and a serpent whose fangs drip venom is set over him in such a way that the poison falls into his eyes.

  In many versions of this particular myth, Sigyn, Loki’s wife, willingly descends into the earth to join her husband in his prison, carrying a bowl or vessel of some kind. She uses it to catch the serpent’s poison, preventing it from falling onto Loki. However, every now and then she has to empty the bowl, and then the poison causes him such pain that he thrashes and groans in his bonds, causing the earth to shake violently.

  Loki is the only one who was able to escape his prison at the very onset of Ragnarök, where he will lead the host of Jötnar against their hated enemies, the Aesir.

  Dwarfs

  It’s hard to imagine Thor without his trusty hammer Mjölnir in his hand, or Odin without his spear Gungnir; likewise, Freyja’s beauty is completed and complemented by the fabulous jewel Brísingamen. What do these items have in common? They were all created by the race of metalsmiths and craftsmen known as the dwarfs. Different groups or families of dwarfs are responsible for different mythical items, from the unbreakable ribbon or binding called Gleipnir, to the items in the possession of the god Freyr (his boar and his ship).

  The Poetic and Prose Eddas differ somewhat on the origin of dwarfs, as while both books say that they sprang forth from Ymir’s body, the former says that they were spontaneously generated from the giant’s blood and bones. The latter, on the other hand, says that the dwarfs were mindless parasites embedded in the giant’s flesh and were granted reason by the Aesir. The names of various dwarfs are listed in both books, some being more notable than most. Four in particular, named Norðri (North), Suðri (South), Austri (East), and Vestri (West), are given the specific task of holding up the sky.

  What a dwarf, or a group of dwarfs, does in a given Norse myth depends on the narrative itself. Sometimes, they assist the heroes by lending them weapons, armor, or other magical items, and sometimes they are the antagonists, either because they won’t share their creations, or because they want to take the heroes’ possessions for themselves.

  One of the myths concerning Thor involves a discussion between the god and a dwarf named Alvíss, who had come to ask for the hand of Thor’s daughter in marriage. As Thor was not inclined to grant his suit, he kept the dwarf up talking throughout the night, all the way until the first rays of the morning sun lit up the horizon and struck Alvíss – who then turned to stone.

  While a vast majority of the dwarfs who appear in the stories of Norse mythology are male – described as having ugly faces and long beards – there are some stray mentions of female dwarfs, such as one of the titular characters in the Swedish ballad “Herr Peder och Dvärgens Dotter” (“Sir Peter and the Dwarf’s Daughter”).

  Some sources identify the dwarfs as being the same race of beings as the black elves.

  Elves

  Having mentioned elves, it becomes easy to proceed to a discussion of this particular group of living beings.

  There is some confusion about the “dark elves” since they seem to be described as living underground in the same way as dwarfs – or black elves – do.

  There is likewise some difficulty in determining who or what the “light elves” really are, since there is such a strong connection between them and the Aesir that some scholars have guessed that they might actually be one and the same. Others think that the light elves might actually be the Vanir, and there seems to be some support for that theory in the association between the god Freyr and the light elves. The main idea seems to be that these particular elves stood in opposition to the giants, as the Aesir did.

  As with the dwarfs, elves appear in the stories and sagas of Norse mythology, but to a greater or lesser degree depending on the tales themselves. Sometimes, they are merely used to set the scene for the hero, giving him a sign that he will be traveling into unknown lands or even into different worlds entirely. At other times, the heroes are marked out as being special by having some degree of blood relationship to the elves, implying that their ancestors intermarried with these otherworldly beings.

  Norns

  Not quite goddesses, not quite giants or dwarfs, not quite human – the Norns are identified primarily as female beings, whose primary function is to foresee and govern the destinies of all living things, from the Aesir on down.

  The Norns are not actually limited to the trio of Urd, Verdandi, and Skuld; there are many others, who are said to appear around a child when it is newly born, and foretell what that child’s destiny will be. Accordingly, some Norns are perceived to be benevolent, while others are malevolent.

  The easiest way of understanding the primary Norns is to compare them to the Greek concept of the Fates: they spin the thread of a person’s life and measure the length of his or her life. Urd’s name corresponds to the past, Verdandi’s to the present, and Skuld’s to the future.

  The primary Norns are depicted as women wrapped in all-concealing cloaks seated next to a holy well. Scattered around them are various lengths of thread and many other items associated with weaving, such as distaffs.

  Skuld, in addition to her function as a Norn, is also often listed as one of the Valkyries.

  Dísir

  While the dísir are also said to be female spirits that govern the fates of individuals and of families, the primary difference seems to be that they may have been derived from the collective spirits of the family’s ancestors. They function as protective spirits, looking after the destinies of their descendants. Festivals were held to honor these spirits, at which sacrifices were made and prayers were said in order to invoke their favorable regard.

  Valkyries

  Already briefly mentioned as being associated with Odin, the familiar image of the Valkyrie is of a young woman wearing shining robes and armor, and carrying weapons such as swords, shields, and spears. They are said to appear around the edges of a battlefield and choose which fighters will live and which will die.

  Then, they perform a further selection of those who die, taking the spirits of their chosen warriors to the hall that’s been reserved for them. The Valkyries also serve as cupbearers to these spirits.

  In some of the heroic stories and sagas, the role of the hero’s lover is assigned to a Valkyrie – and she may either fight by his side on the field of battle, or give him her weapons and armor, or stay behind but offer him her guidance or counsel.

  Depending on the depiction, a Valkyrie may often be accompanied by ravens (to denote her connection to Odin), horses, or swans.

  Humans

  According to material in the Poetic Edda, the first man was named “Ask” and the first woman was named Embla. Their names are derived from trees: “Ask” from the ash tree, and “Embla” from either the elm or a vine. The stories of their creation vary from account to account; some say that it was Odin, Hönir, and Lothur who gave them important gifts, while others say that the three gods involved were Odin and his brothe
rs Vili and Vé.

  Scholars still disagree on the right interpretation of the gifts that were given to these first humans, such as “soul”, “sense”, and “blood and goodly color”. What they do agree on is that the entire human race traces its descent from these two individuals, and that at least two of the Aesir were tasked with watching over them and protecting them: Odin, who participated in their creation or awakening; and Thor, who fights the giants on their behalf.

  The fate of mankind during the upheaval and battles of Ragnarök is likewise embodied in one man and one woman, who are foretold to survive the end of the universe by hiding either in a sheltered wood or within the trunk of a tree. The woman’s name is said to be Líf, while the man’s is Lífthrasir.

  Chapter 5

  Heroes and Heroines

  Humans are not without their great legends and heroic tales within the corpus of Norse mythology and in stories such as the Völsunga saga and the many exploits of the Viking hero Ragnar Lodbrok, men and women struggle for their lives – sometimes against other humans, and sometimes against monstrous and terrible creatures – while various gods look on.

  The theme that unites these sagas seems to be that it is a heroic thing to be aware of one’s own mortality and the limited time that one might have on earth – but never to let that grim knowledge overshadow one’s days.

  Völsunga Saga

  Volsung was the son of Rerir, born after his father’s death from a long and lingering illness. He inherited the martial prowess of his ancestors and proved it by winning the hand of Hljod in marriage, taking her family, who were Jötnar, by surprise. Together, Volsung and Hljod raise a large family of eleven, of whom the eldest are the twins Sigmund and Signy.

  When Signy is old enough to be married, she catches the eye of Siggeir, and they are soon wed – but at the wedding feast, Sigmund, Signy’s twin brother, unwittingly offends Siggeir. In retaliation, Siggeir imprisons not just Sigmund but all of his and Signy’s brothers. Siggeir also kills Volsung through treacherous means.

  Sigmund and his brothers are placed in stocks out in the open, so that they may be devoured by wolves – but Signy defies her husband and finds a way for her twin brother to escape his captivity. He hides in a wood and Signy anonymously sends him assistance – and eventually, the two sons she bore to Siggeir with the intention that Sigmund should raise those sons and train them into warriors who will avenge Volsung. But the two boys fail Sigmund’s tests of bravery and have themselves killed.

  Signy then disguises herself and goes to Sigmund’s lair and sleeps with him over the course of three nights before returning to the home of Siggeir. She becomes pregnant with Sigmund’s son, whom she names Sinfiotli. She hides the fact of his parentage from her son himself as well as from her husband and her brother.

  Being a “pure” descendant of Volsung, Sinfiotli is the ideal candidate to avenge his grandfather and uncles, and Sigmund consents to train him to become a powerful warrior. They waited for their chance to attack – and when Signy gives them the signal, they take Siggeir and all the rest of his children by surprise. The children are put to the sword while Siggeir watches, and then Sigmund and Sinfiotli shut Siggeir up in his house and set it on fire.

  In perfect silence, Signy stands by and allows them to slaughter the children, and to torch the house. And, as Siggeir dies, she speaks to Sigmund and Sinfiotli, telling them that they have succeeded in avenging the dead Volsung and his sons. Then she enters the burning house and dies at Siggeir’s side.

  Sigmund returns to the country of his father and rules there for many years. In his old age, he married a woman named Hjordis. But the suitor that she rejected in Sigmund’s favor wages war against Sigmund, finally breaking his sword into shards and dealing him a mortal blow. As he lays dying, Sigmund asks Hjordis to safeguard the broken sword, and foretells that it will be reforged so that their unborn son might carry his father’s weapon.

  Soon after Sigmund’s death, Hjordis gives birth to their son, Sigurd; they are taken in by the prince of a neighboring kingdom, and Sigurd grows to manhood there.

  In searching for a horse that would take him on adventures, Sigurd enters a wood and encounters Odin himself; the god deems him worthy and brave, and bestows upon him the gift of the horse Grani, which is descended from Odin’s own steed Sleipnir.

  Sigurd’s tutor and foster-father, Regin, tells him the story of Fafnir the dragon. Fafnir had been Regin’s brother, but he killed their father and amassed a hoard of cursed gold.

  Regin tries to make a sword for his foster-son, but the blades break when Sigurd tests them. The third sword is forged out of the shards of Sigmund’s sword, and this time, Sigurd cleaves Regin’s iron anvil in half when he tests the blade.

  Before setting out to kill Fafnir, Sigurd first avenges his father. Then, he travels to the country in which Fafnir is rumored to be residing and hatches a plan: he will dig a ditch and hide in it, and when Fafnir travels over that ditch, he will stab him with his sword, and hold fast so that the dragon’s body should be cut all the way down to his tail. Odin appears again and advises Sigurd to dig several ditches to catch Fafnir’s blood.

  The plan is successful, but Fafnir curses Sigurd, saying that his hoard of gold and Regin will be the causes of Sigurd’s own death. Regin comes upon the scene and drinks Fafnir’s blood, then asks Sigurd to roast the heart of Fafnir so that Regin can eat it.

  In testing whether the heart was cooked, Sigurd gets some of the dragon’s blood on his finger and licks it off – and the blood gives him the ability to understand the language of birds. By listening to a nearby flock, he learns that Regin is planning to kill him – so he eats the heart instead, then kills Regin. On leaving, he takes with him as much of the dragon’s gold as he can carry.

  While riding aimlessly, he comes upon a strange ring of flames; he forces his horse through that ring and is surprised to come upon a sleeping maiden: the Valkyrie Brynhild, who has been cast out from Odin’s service. He wakes her up and she gives him her love, as well as teaches him how to navigate the shifting currents of society. She also shares with him her knowledge of magic. Sigurd promises to marry her when he returns from his adventures.

  Sigurd makes his way to Gjuki and his queen, Grimhild, and they welcome and introduce him to their children: their sons Gunnar, Hogni, and Guttorm; and their daughter Gudrun. Grimhild wants Sigurd to marry Gudrun, so she slips a magical potion into his drink – it caused him to forget all about Brynhild and the promises that he made to her. He takes Gudrun as his wife.

  Gunnar then asks Sigurd to help him win Brynhild as his wife – but Gunnar is not brave enough to ride through the flames. Another magical spell allows the two men to exchange shapes, and again, Sigurd breaks through the fire. He spends three nights with Brynhild, but this time, he puts his bare sword between them in the bed. Then, still wearing Gunnar’s form, he asks her to come away with him – and she does so, reluctantly, leaving behind a child named Aslaug, who is the daughter that she bore to Sigurd.

  Thinking that Sigurd was unfaithful to her, Brynhild marries Gunnar, and there was peace for a short time in the household of Gjuki – peace enough for Sigurd and Gudrun to have a son. But then Brynhild and Gudrun have an argument over which of them has won the better husband – and in the process, the whole truth about Gunnar and Sigurd comes spilling out.

  To take her revenge, Brynhild goes to her husband Gunnar and lies to him about Sigurd, saying that Sigurd had slept with her during the three nights that he spent with her, and that unless Gunnar kills Sigurd, she will leave him. Again, playing the coward, Gunnar convinces one of his brothers to kill Sigurd in his sleep – and that brother dies, too, when the mortally wounded Sigurd throws his sword and impales him.

  Brynhild laughs as Gudrun weeps over her dead husband – then reveals the whole truth to a shocked Gunnar before foretelling his future and that of Gudrun. Then she kills herself. Gunnar, weeping, lays her body on the funeral pyre with Sigurd.

  Ragnar L
oðbrókar Saga

  The immediate sequel to the Völsunga saga tells of Ragnar Lodbrok’s many adventures and explains his connection to Sigurd and Brynhild.

  Born the son of Sigurd Hring (no relation to Sigurd of the Völsunga saga), Ragnar ascends to his father’s throne and becomes the ruler of a great northern kingdom.

  But the kings of the surrounding regions believe Ragnar to be too young and too inexperienced to lead his people and hold his throne, so they send various armies against him, hoping to overthrow him and take his holdings for themselves.

  Ragnar proves himself to be a formidable warrior even in his youth, and he personally leads his army against his enemies’ raids. He kills many great warriors and wins great fame throughout the land.

  On hearing of the murder of his grandfather Siward, Ragnar rides to avenge him – and there he finds that the women of his grandfather’s household have been forced into prostitution. He throws himself into the battle to rescue them, and is aided by a force of skilled fighters – who are revealed to be those same abused women, dressed in men’s clothes and wielding men’s weapons. Chief among these fighters is the fierce and skilled Lagertha, and she impresses Ragnar so much that he courts her and wishes to make her his wife.

  She tests him by setting a bear and a great hunting-hound to guard her home; Ragnar fights and kills them both, and wins Lagertha’s respect and heart. She bears him a son named Fridleif and two daughters.

  Hearing of his king’s skill as a warrior, one of Ragnar’s own vassals asks him for help with killing a serpent. That vassal had set a young serpent as his beautiful daughter Thora’s guardian – and when it grew into its full size, it claimed the girl for itself, and ate anyone who tried to go near it and her. The vassal asked Ragnar to kill the serpent and promised to give him Thora’s hand in marriage if he succeeds.