The Lost Peace

by Robert Dallek

  Douglas, William O., 186

  “Dover Beach” (Arnold), 179

  draft, military, 259

  Dulles, John Foster, 134, 349, 351

  Eastern Europe, 163, 171, 224, 253, 256, 267, 322; “alien influences” in Soviet Union and, 180; demands for representative governments in, 60, 61, 123, 213, 219; East-West balance in Europe and, 301; Marshall Plan and, 240, 242, 251; overthrow of Soviet rule in, 172, 216, 299, 300, 309, 317, 332, 348, 370; planning of postwar arrangements and, 55, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, 63–64, 107, 113, 154, 155, 225–26; Soviet conquest and occupation of, 45, 51, 52, 53, 56, 57, 60, 77, 108, 131, 180, 226, 246; Soviet security concerns and, 56, 64, 113, 123, 134, 246; Warsaw Pact and, 193, 277. See also specific nations

  East Germany, 46, 253, 257, 301, 314, 322

  Eberstadt, Ferdinand, 243

  Eden, Anthony, 21, 52, 53, 54, 58–59, 114, 117

  Egypt, 175, 196, 365

  Einstein, Albert, 7

  Eisenhower, Dwight, 196, 243, 334, 365; atomic weapons and, 350; concentration camps and, 78, 79; on dangers of military-industrial complex, 11, 106; Indochina and, 360; Korean War and, 194, 348–53; McCarthy and, 224, 347–48; as presidential candidate, 147, 194, 313, 346–49; Soviet advance into Germany and, 81–82

  Enola Gay, 126–27

  espionage, 268, 269, 291; Acheson’s confirmation hearings and, 274–75; Amerasia investigation and, 224–25; atomic secrets and, 122, 187–88, 199, 278, 313, 315; Chambers–Hiss affair and, 268, 274, 290, 292

  Estonia. See Baltic states

  European Recovery Plan. See Marshall Plan

  Europeans, self-identification of, 10–11

  Faisal I, king of Iraq, 174

  Farrell, Thomas F., 119–20

  Fascism, 1, 8, 18, 163

  Federal Employee Loyalty Program, 234

  Federation of Atomic Scientists (FAS), 197–98

  Final Solution (Judenrein), 5. See also Holocaust

  Finland, 3, 28, 40, 116, 367

  Ford, Henry, 251

  Foreign Affairs, 244–48

  Forrestal, James, 33, 243, 244, 250–51

  Fosdick, Harry Emerson, 68

  France, 5, 7, 10, 18, 27, 28, 56, 231, 242, 251, 252, 279, 296; Algeria and, 275, 365; appeasement policy of, 19, 75, 299; capitulation of, to Germany, 20, 41, 42, 75; defensive alliances and, 258, 276, 277; devastation in, 95; German revival feared by, 258, 259; Indochina and, 140–42, 159, 194, 275, 358–62; in occupation of Germany, 61; occupied, cross-Channel assault on, 30, 34, 36–37, 38, 40, 44, 45–46, 51, 54, 62, 77, 162; planning of postwar arrangements and, 41–43, 237, 259; Soviet power feared in, 257, 258

  Franco, Francisco, 18

  French Communist Party, 237, 251, 252

  Fuchs, Klaus, 122, 188, 315

  Fulbright, J. William, 220–21

  Gallup polls, 187, 206, 221, 266, 316–17, 339

  Gandhi, Mohandas K., 169, 170

  General Electric, 198

  George, W. L., 45

  German Workers’ Party, 74

  Germany, 7, 10, 18, 246–47, 256, 279, 370; Berlin blockade and (1948), 259–61, 263, 264, 267, 271, 276, 279, 280, 300, 301; circumstances leading to Hitler’s rise in, 73, 74–75; devastation in, 95; devout anti-Communists in, 242–43; division of, 259, 281; occupation of, 55, 59, 61, 116, 118, 135, 214, 237, 254, 276; planning of postwar arrangements for, 55, 56, 57, 59, 116, 235, 237–38, 253–55, 280–81; possibility of establishing Jewish refuge in, 173–74; reluctant to rebuild its military forces, 105; resurgent, fears of, 123, 184, 216, 238, 246, 258, 259, 260, 261, 276, 277, 281; Soviet advance into, 58, 64–65, 77–78, 79, 81–82; Soviet influence in, 253–54. See also East Germany; Hitler, Adolf; Nazi Germany; West Germany; World War II

  Gilbert Islands, 86

  Giraud, Henri, 42

  Goebbels, Joseph, 7, 72

  Goldwater, Barry, 195

  Gorbachev, Mikhail, 153

  Gordov, V. N., 261–62

  Göring, Hermann, 7, 80

  Gottwald, Klement, 314

  Great Britain, 4, 7, 28, 30, 57, 75, 149, 188, 202–3, 235, 242, 252, 259, 279; appeasement policy of, 19, 75, 299; atomic weapons program of, 23–24, 35–36, 62, 296; Churchill’s warnings to, on danger posed by Soviet Union, 211–13; defensive alliances and, 258, 276, 277; events leading to World War II and, 19, 27; India’s independence from, 168–72; Palestine and, 172–73, 177; postwar reconstruction in, 113; retreat of, from Balkans and Middle East, 229–33; Soviet alliance with, 19, 21, 28, 29; UN control over colonies and, 99; winter storms of 1947 in, 228–29, 230. See also Churchill, Winston; Pacific War; World War II

  Greece, 22, 57, 123, 238; Communist uprising in, 55, 229–33, 262, 267, 272

  Gromyko, Andrei, 99, 122, 212

  Groves, Leslie R., 119–20, 198

  Guam, 84

  Guatemala, 365

  gulags, 63, 180, 185, 315, 358

  Gulf War (1990–91), 316, 369

  Haig, Al, 196

  Harriman, Averell, 57, 67, 104, 110, 120, 163, 185, 324; Japan’s postwar governance and, 135; Molotov’s attendance at UN founding conference and, 100, 101; on Soviet intransigence, 51; on Stalin’s personal nature, 305–6

  Hawaii, 86; Pearl Harbor attack in (1941), 29, 77, 88, 96, 176, 257

  Hegel, G. W. F., 363

  Hersey, John, 127

  Himmler, Heinrich, 7

  Hirohito, emperor of Japan, 126, 128–29, 135

  Hiroshima bombing (1945), 4, 126–28, 197

  Hiss, Alger, 268, 274, 290, 292, 346

  Hiss, Donald, 274

  Hitler, Adolf, 2, 3, 7, 9, 10, 18, 27, 33, 39, 66, 72–81, 171, 193, 202, 248, 255, 299, 363–64, 365; anticommunism of, 66, 74, 76, 79, 80; anti-Semitism of, 5, 72–73, 74, 80 (see also Holocaust); boyhood and schooling of, 72–73; concerns about separate peace with, 37, 38; contradictions in, 305; distorted, irrational ambitions of, 72, 73, 80–81; downward spiral of defeats and, 76, 77, 79–80; early political career and rise to power of, 74–76; as ideal enemy for Churchill, 20–21; military victories of 1939–40 and, 20, 75–76; Munich concessions to, 19, 75, 297, 312; officers’ attempted coup against (1944), 76–77, 364; propaganda techniques of, 76; Roosevelt’s death and, 72; Soviet Union attacked by, 21, 28–29, 71, 153, 246; Stalin compared to, 256, 257–59, 264, 276, 280, 300, 312; Stalin’s nonaggression pact with, 19, 21, 27, 28, 47, 153, 311; suicide of, 79, 80; Truman’s public statement on, 71; war declared on U.S. by, 77; in World War I, 73–74

  Ho Chi Minh, 141–42, 358–60, 361, 362

  Hodge, John, 139

  Hokkaido, 135

  Holocaust, 5, 72, 78–79, 215, 363; Jewish migration to Palestine and, 172, 173, 174, 176

  Hong Kong, 83

  Hoover, Herbert, 69, 82, 144, 229

  Hopkins, Harry, 30, 55, 59, 67, 104

  House Un-American Activities Committee, 163, 274

  Howard, Roy, 27

  Hull, Cordell, 103

  Humphrey, Hubert, 293

  Hungary, 22, 53, 116, 257

  Hurley, Patrick, 144–45, 160–61, 162, 287

  hydrogen bomb (H-bomb), 127, 300, 317; debate over development of, 293–96; Soviet development of, 314–15

  Ickes, Harold, 69

  Ignatieff, Michael, 125

  “imperial presidency,” 316

  India, 8, 84, 296, 365; Hindu-Muslim divisions in, 169, 170–71; independence of, 168–72; partition of, 170–71

  Indochina, 43, 138, 139–42, 194, 275; postwar re-creation of French colonial rule in, 140–42, 159, 358–59; Vietnamese independence movement in, 141–42, 358–62

  Indonesia, 275

  inflation, 193, 219, 220

  International Atomic Development Authority, 199–200

  internationalism, 26, 40, 50, 51, 60, 96–97, 227, 265

  International Monetary Fund (IMF), 190, 238

  Iran, 155, 157, 163, 231, 232, 365; nuclear weapons sought by, 296, 365

  Iraq War (2003–), 315, 316, 366, 369

  “iron curt
ain,” Churchill’s coining of phrase, 116, 205–6

  Iron Curtain speech (Churchill; 1946), 203–8, 212–13, 218

  Irving, David, 79

  isolationism: preceding U.S. involvement in World War II, 26, 28, 96, 105–6, 276, 299; reversion to, after World War II, 40, 50, 51, 57–58, 59, 134, 139, 148, 176, 227, 265

  Israel, 175, 196, 271, 296, 356, 365; creation of, 172–78 (see also Palestine); U.S. recognition of, 178, 269–70

  Italy, 3, 8, 18, 57, 88, 251, 252; Allied attack on, 37–38, 44, 62; Communist Party of, 251, 252; negotiations over surrender of German forces in, 64–65, 81; UN admission of, 116

  Iwo Jima, battle of (1945), 86–87

  Japan, 26, 66, 113, 163, 171, 172, 216, 225, 288–89, 299, 311, 353, 354, 363; Communist neighbors as security threat to, 302, 303; Korea and, 139, 303, 304, 305, 306, 307; militarism in, 1, 5, 8, 10, 126, 129, 135; occupation of, 135–38, 155, 158, 301–2, 318, 324, 355; postwar transformation of, 129, 136, 301–2, 370; reluctant to rebuild military forces, 105; U.S. military bases in, 327, 328, 339, 355; U.S. peace agreement with, 301–2, 309, 328, 337, 339, 355. See also Pacific War

  Japanese Americans, incarceration of, 85–86

  Jenner, William, 333, 347

  Jessup, Phillip, 324

  Jewish American community, 175, 215

  Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee, 356

  Jews: Hitler’s anti-Semitism and, 5, 72–73, 74, 80 (see also Holocaust); Palestine issue and, 172–78 (see also Israel; Palestine); possibility of establishing refuge in Germany for, 173–74; Stalin’s distrust of, 215, 356–57

  Jinnah, Mohammad Ali, 170–71

  Johnson, Louis, 294, 295–96, 299

  Johnson, Lyndon B., 195, 196, 223, 293, 315, 316, 365, 367, 369

  Joint Chiefs of Staff, 288, 294, 303, 320, 331, 336, 367

  Joy, Turner, 338

  Justice Department, U.S., 225

  Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics, Berlin, 122

  Kalinin, Mikhail, 28, 32, 356

  Kase, Toshikazu, 9

  Kennan, George F., 1, 115, 183–84, 186, 189–93, 249, 257–58, 263–64; H-bomb development and, 295; on Byrnes’s conduct at 1945 Moscow conference, 154–55; on Chinese- Soviet relations, 159–60, 164; February 1946 “Long Telegram” of, 190–92, 216, 264; Korean War and, 325, 332; on “loss” of China, 290; May 1945 assessment of Soviets by, 181, 189–90; NATO creation and, 192–93, 277; November 1947 overview of Soviet-American relations by, 252–53; on nuclear weapons and, 132–33, 194; at odds with mainstream thinking, 281–82; retirement of, 282, 298; Stalin evaluated by, 149–50, 151, 152–53, 297–98; on Truman’s speech on Greece, 232–33; X article by, 244–48, 264

  Kennedy, John F., xi–xii, 11, 365, 369; anticommunism of, 223, 226; Cuban missile crisis and, 194–95, 196, 366–67; elected to Congress, 222–23; on Soviet threat, 223; UN founding and, 104, 105

  Kennedy, Joseph, 104

  Kerensky, Alexander, 32

  Kerr, Sir Archibald Clark, 37

  Khrushchev, Nikita, 150, 153, 196, 355, 356; Cuban missile crisis and, 365 366, 367

  Kim Il Sung, 302, 304–6, 307–8, 311, 320, 330, 336, 352, 353, 361, 364; background of, 304–5; cult of personality of, 305; invasion of South proposed by, 309–10; personal nature of, 305–6; repressive regime of, 306, 307, 308

  King, Mackenzie, 156, 259

  Kissinger, Henry, 167, 196, 308, 365, 367–69

  Korea, 8, 138, 155, 159, 217, 224, 247; aversion to representative government in, 308; Japanese control of, 139, 304, 305, 306, 307; peninsula-wide elections and reunification planned for, 303, 304, 305, 320; postwar division and occupation of, 139

  Korean War, 168, 302–46, 349–55, 358, 359, 361; armistice talks in, 336–38, 339–41, 343–44, 345, 350–53, 357; atomic attacks considered in, 194, 326, 327, 329–30, 339, 342, 350, 355; biological warfare charged in, 343; bombing raids on North Korea in, 344–45; casualties in, 327, 328, 354; Chinese intervention in, 320, 321–23, 324, 325–27, 328, 336, 354–55; Chinese support for Kim’s war plans in, 309–10, 311, 312; congressional authorization not sought in, 315–16; Eisenhower’s visit and, 348, 349–50; extraordinary combination of events leading to, 308–11; Inchon landing in, 319; invasion of North Korea in, 319–23, 325, 354, 364, 369; MacArthur firing and, 330–36; MacArthur’s command in, 194, 311, 318, 319–20, 323–26; North Korean successes in early days of, 311, 318; North Korea’s attack on South Korea as start of, 311; North-South borders and, 337, 339–40, 351; poor leadership demonstrated by all belligerents in, 353–55; potential widening of, 329–32, 335–36, 354; POW repatriation and, 340–41, 343, 344, 345, 349, 351, 352, 353; presidential election of 1952 and, 194, 313, 346, 348–49; Pusan defensive perimeter in, 318, 319, 328; renewed offensive in (1952), 344–45; Rhee’s opposition to truce in, 352–53; Ridgway’s victories in, 328, 329; Soviet support for North Korea in, 309–10, 311, 312, 326–27; stalemate in, 345; tensions between North and South Korea before, 302–8; Truman’s apocalyptic fantasies and, 341–42, 343–44; Truman’s decision to rescue South Korea in, 311–14, 332, 354; Truman’s domestic pressures and, 322–23, 330–31, 341; UN “police action” in, 314, 315; U.S. defense buildup stimulated by, 317; U.S. detachment from developments before outbreak of, 303–4, 310–11, 314; U.S. ground forces committed to, 311, 317–18; U.S. not expected to intervene in, 309–10; U.S. public opinion and, 313, 316–17, 328–29, 336, 338, 352; Yalu River bridges bombed in, 325

  Krock, Arthur, 245

  Kuomintang, 143. See also Chiang Kai-shek

  Kurchatov, Igor, 122

  Kuril Islands, 93, 135

  Kuwait, 369

  labor unions, 193, 219, 220, 222

  Ladies’ Home Journal, 197

  Lane, Arthur Bliss, 57

  Laos, 361. See also Indochina

  Latin America, 106, 236, 249, 275, 368

  Latvia. See Baltic states

  Lawrence, Ernest, 293

  League of Nations, 26, 96–97, 98, 104, 172, 265

  Leahy, William D., 110, 204

  LeMay, Curtis, 89, 194–95, 367

  lend-lease program, 103, 104, 182

  Lenin, V. I., 29, 31, 32, 152, 153

  Life, 82, 87–88, 90

  Lilienthal, David, 198–200, 201, 294, 295–96

  Lincoln, Abraham, 6, 8, 69

  Lippmann, Walter, 186, 246–47

  Lipstadt, Deborah, 79

  Lithuania, 99. See also Baltic states

  Litvinov, Maxim, 27, 83

  Lodge, Henry Cabot, 97

  London conference (1945), 133–34, 153–54

  London conference (1947), 253–55

  Long, Huey, 70, 85

  Look, 97

  Lovett, Robert, 247, 251, 302

  loyalty declarations, 220, 225

  Luce, Clare Boothe, 84

  Luce, Henry, 40, 82, 90, 144, 290

  Luxemburg, 192, 258

  lynchings, 219, 267

  MacArthur, Douglas, 147, 194, 303; atomic attacks and, 194, 326, 350; egotism and personal nature of, 84–85; expressions of respect for, 334–35; firing of, 330–36, 342; Korean War and, 194, 311, 318, 319–20, 321, 323–26, 330–36, 342, 344, 350, 354; occupation of Japan commanded by, 135–37, 138, 158, 318, 324; Pacific War and, 8–9, 84–85, 126, 318; Roosevelt’s difficulties with, 85; Senate testimony of, 335–36; Truman’s China policy challenged by, 318–19; Truman’s Wake Island meeting with, 323–24

  Madison, James, 315

  Mailer, Norman, 197

  Majdanek death camp, Poland, 78–79

  Malaya, 83

  Malenkov, Georgy, 150, 355

  Malta, Churchill and Roosevelt’s meeting on (1944), 58–59

  Manchuria, 304, 342; Japanese forces in, 26, 93; Korean War and, 320, 321, 322, 325, 326, 343; MacArthur’s request for atomic attack on, 326; returned to Chinese control, 288; Soviet control of, 93–94, 160, 164, 284, 288

  Manhattan Project, 35–36, 119–20, 122, 130, 198

  Mao Tse-tung, 144, 167, 302, 364; civ
il war and, 90, 94, 143, 160, 161, 309, 346; coalition government and, 142–43, 159, 166; explanations for victory of, 284–85; hopes for toppling of, 318–19, 322, 330, 331, 350; invasion of Taiwan by, 287–88, 301, 304, 310, 311–12, 313, 330; Korean War and, 309–10, 311, 326, 327, 337, 340, 350–51, 353, 354–55; Soviet relations with, 94, 163–64, 165, 285, 288–89; UN representation and, 314,330; U.S. relations with, 161, 168, 225, 236, 285–88, 289, 368

  Marianas, 88

  Marshall, George C., 5–6, 29, 78, 92, 110, 130, 231, 270, 347; China mission of, 161–63, 165–66, 235–36, 283; European reconstruction and, 238–40 (see also Marshall Plan); Germany’s postwar arrangements and, 235, 237–38, 253–54; Korean War and, 320; Pacific War and, 84, 86; resignation of, 271–72; Soviet threat and, 252, 259

  Marshall Islands, 86

  Marshall Plan, 235, 238–42, 247, 251–52, 259, 260, 267, 272, 281, 298; Soviet views on, 239, 240, 241–42; Truman’s apocalyptic rhetoric and, 255–56

  Martin, Joseph, 234, 331

  Masaryk, Jan, 256

  McCarthy, Joseph R., 192, 223–24, 290– 93, 299, 300, 330, 333; Eisenhower’s presidential campaign and, 347–48

  McCloy, John J., 198

  McNamara, Robert, 367

  Mein Kampf (Hitler), 74

  Melville, Herman, 107

  Middle East, 172–78, 193, 365, 366; Communist threat to, 230, 232; oil in, 157, 174, 175–76. See also Palestine

  Midway Island, 86

  Mikhoels, Solomon, 356

  Mikoyan, Anastas, 150, 261

  military-industrial complex, 11, 106

  Military Liaison Board, 198

  Miller, Merle, 331

  Molotov, Vyacheslav, 32, 47, 48, 64, 135, 356; atomic bomb project and, 122; Germany’s postwar arrangements and, 237, 254; at London conference of 1945, 133–34, 153–54; Marshall Plan and, 240; opening of second front and, 29, 30; physical appearance and demeanor of, 29; Stalin’s relationship with, 29, 150, 261; UN organizing conference and, 64, 99, 100–101

  Monsanto Chemical, 198

  Montgomery, Bernard, 81, 243

  Moran, Lord, 46, 48, 212

  Morgenthau, Henry, 92, 149

  Moscow, 181, 212; Churchill’s 1942 meeting with Stalin in, 31, 34–36

  Moscow conference (1944), 21–23, 54

  Moscow conference (1945), 154–56

  Moscow conference (1947), 235, 237–38

  Mountbatten, Lord, 169

  Munich Pact (1938), 19, 75, 297, 312. See also appeasement