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Becoming Fluent

Page 20

by Richard M Roberts


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  Index

  Abe, Kathrin, 111–112, 184n11

  Abelson, Robert, 161, 190n17

  Accent

  acquiring a native-like accent, 3, 54, 85, 90

  based on arrival in US, 81–86

  as part of one’s identity, 24, 48, 81–88

  intelligibility of, 47, 80, 87

  as a measure of proficiency, 3, 44, 49, 80, 131

  modification of, 86–88

  positive aspects of, 86–88

  Adefris, Wolansa, 154–155, 189n14

  Adults and adulthood

  bilingualism in, 75, 77

  cognitive slowing in, 71–72

  comparison to children, 3–4, 33, 90

  interlanguage in, 46

  mastery of a foreign language in, 18, 29, 35, 36, 41–44, 54, 66, 77, 107

  mastery of sounds of a foreign language in, 82, 85, 88

  metacognitive awareness in, 9–10, 90, 142

  myths of language learning in, 1–5, 18

  as strategic learners, 2, 4, 10–13, 17–18, 89–90, 91, 95, 107, 108, 124–125, 134, 145, 152, 167

  strengths of adult learners, 1, 4, 8, 9, 10, 23, 26, 31, 36, 44, 53–55, 70, 73, 83, 90, 96, 97, 130, 137, 157

  tip-of-the-tongue states in, 71, 142

  weaknesses of adult learners, 2, 3, 8, 14, 17, 25, 39, 49, 65, 93, 118, 119, 121, 136, 138, 153

  Africa, languages spoken in, 75, 81

  Age of arrival (in US), 82–85

  Alladi, Suvarna, 76, 180n10

  Allerhand, Michael, 76–77, 180n10

  Alzheimer’s disease, 73, 76

  America. See United States

  American culture, 62, 66–67, 68, 160–161, 162

  Americans. See also United States

  conversational norms of, 66–67, 89, 162–163

  as from a low-context culture, 68

  as prone to exaggeration, 62

  An, Sun Gyu, 96–97, 182n4

  Anchoring and adjustment, 17

  Anger, idioms for, 112–113

  Anglo-Norman, 98–99

  Anglo-Saxon, 97, 98

  Anthropology, 5, 6

  Aphasia, 40–41, 86

  Arabic, 22, 35, 38, 39, 75, 82

  Area codes, 117

  Aristotle, 11

  Armor, David, 15, 173n4

  Artificial intelligence, 5, 6, 13, 70

  Aspiration, 82

  Attitude, importance of positive, 167

  Austin, John, 59, 177n5

  Ausubel, David, 3, 35–36, 119, 125, 171n2, 175n3, 186n11

  Availability heuristic, 13–14

  Awful German Language, The, 69

  Baddeley, Alan, 119–120, 123, 154–155, 185n5, 186n10, 189n14

  Bahrick, Harry, 130, 147–148, 186n14, 188n6, 188n7

  Bahrick, Phyllis, 147, 188n6

  Bak, Thomas, 76–77, 180n10

  Ballard, Clive, 74, 179n4

  Bandura, Albert, 23, 174n12

  Barlow, Jack, 61, 177n6, 177n7

  Barrett, Deirdre, 157, 190n16

  Bartlett, Frederic, 161–162, 190n18

  Basic English, 105

  Bayen, Ute, 8, 172n4

  Beattie, Geoffrey, 73, 179n3

  Bell Telephone Company, 115–116

  Bent, Tessa, 80, 181n14

  Berglas, S., 28, 175n15

  Berko Gleason, Jean, 10, 172n8

  Bialystok, Ellen, 54, 74, 75, 76, 77, 176n1, 179n5, 179–180n7, 180n8, 180n9

  Big Bang Theory, The (TV series), 106

  Bilingualism, 55, 74–77, 99

  Bird, Elinor, 167, 191n21

  Birdsong, David, 3, 171n2

  Bird watching, 78–79

  Black, John, 8, 172n5

  Blaney, Paul, 155, 190n15

  Blank Greif, Esther, 10, 172n8

  Bon appétit anecdote, 45

  Bonnefon, Jean-François, 134–135, 187n18

  Borland, Ron, 20, 174n9

  Bottom-up processing, 7–8, 91–95

  Bowers, Cheryl, 8, 172n4

  Bradford, Marshall, 3, 171n2

  Bradlow, Ann, 80, 181n14

  Brain, 4, 8, 21, 40, 73–74, 92

  brain training, 74

  comparison to a muscle, 74, 141

  “Break someone’s heart” (idiomatic expression), 111–112

  Broca’s (nonfluent) aphasia, 40

  Brogan, T. V. F., 62, 177n8

  Brown, Alan, 193

  Brown, Peter, 193

  Brown, Roger, 139–141, 187n1

  Buehler, Roger, 15, 173n3

  Bulgarian language, 101

  Burmese language, 38

  Burns, Alistair, 74, 179n4

  Cambridge University, 162

  Carney, Russell, 167, 191n22

  Carroll, Raymond, 68, 178n12

  Carson, Johnny, 151, 152

  Castor and Pollux, 163

  Central executive, 6, 120–121

  Chabris, Christopher, 121, 185n8, 193

  Chase, Stuart, 96, 182n3

  Chase, William, 145, 188n4

  Chaudhuri, Jaydip, 76, 180n10

  Chess, expert vs. novice players, 28, 144–145

  Childhood and children, 9, 53–54

  bilingualism in, 74–75

  cognitive processes of, 35, 118

  comparison to adult language learning, 3–5, 18, 54, 74, 81–86, 90

  critical period in language acquisition in, 85

  education of, 10, 29, 33, 90, 165, 166

  envy of, 4, 66

  feelings of
self-efficacy in, 25

  metacognition in, 9, 10, 53, 54

  readiness (cognitive state) in, 29

  rhetorical questions addressed to, 64

  China, as a high-context culture, 68

  Chinese language

  Cantonese, 38

  Chinese-accented English, 80

  in relation to other languages, 68, 101, 132, 138

  Mandarin, 38, 68, 80, 101, 132, 138

  as a “super hard” language, 12, 22, 38, 39, 40

  Chronis, Andrea, 102, 183n5

  Chunking, 117–118, 119, 132, 145

  Clark, Herbert, 48, 176n10

  Clopper, Cynthia, 80, 181n15

  Cognates, 4, 46, 98, 100, 106

  Cognitive load and overload, 121, 130–135

  factors external to language, 132–135

  factors internal to language, 131–132

  Cognitive science, 71, 85, 110, 144, 155, 159

  critical period for learning language, 85

  definition, 5–6

  insights based on, 5, 8

  starfish analogy, 6

  Cognitive scientists

  general areas of research, 4–6

  research in artificial intelligence, 13, 70

  research on aging, 71

  research on goal setting, 21

  research on knowledge transfer, 106

  research on memory, 116, 123

  research on practice, 21, 143

  research on pragmatics, 48, 53, 62

  Common ground, 48–51, 68, 161

  Concepts, as prototypes in language learning, 96

  Conceptually driven processing, 7, 8, 91–95, 157

  Conceptual similarities across languages, 110

  Confirmation bias, 17–18

  Cooper, Sheldon, 106, 109

  Cooperative Principle, 56–59, 60, 72

  Costa, Albert, 96–97, 182n4

  Counterfactual thinking, 16–17

  Cowan, Nelson, 119, 184n4

  Craik, Fergus, 74, 75, 76, 122–123, 179n5, 179–180n7, 180n8, 180n9, 185–186n9

  Crawford, Philip, 45, 176n7

  Critical period, 85

  Crowder, Robert, 136, 187n19

  Cued response technique, 72

  Cull, William, 102, 183n5

  Cummings, K. M., 20, 174n9

  Cutler, Anne, 65, 177n9

  Czech language, 82, 101

  Dahlgren, Donna, 142, 187n2

  Dajani, Said, 74, 179n4

  Dalgleish, Tim, 167, 191n21

  D’Anna, Catherine, 102, 183n5

  Danish language, 100

  Data-driven processing, 7–8, 91–95

  Davies, Caroline, 62, 177n8

  Deary, Ian, 76–77, 180n10

  Death, idioms for, 112

  Decision making, 12, 15, 17, 18

  De Luca, Cinzia, 120, 185n7

  Dementia, 73–74, 76–77

  De Neys, Wim, 134–135, 187n18

  Depth of processing, 122–123, 150

  Detroit, bankruptcy of, 30

  Diacritics, 33

  Dialect, 44, 80, 86, 98, 104, 108–109

  Dictionaries, estimating vocabulary size with, 102–103, 104, 140

  Diener, Ed, 69, 178n15

  Digit span, 9, 116–118

  age-related decline in, 118

  Discourse goals, 61, 63

  Distributed practice, 19, 21, 149, 156–157

  Dodson, John, 132–133, 186n16

  Dog, concept of, 110

  Dörnyei, Zoltán, 28, 175n16

  Dreifus, Claudia, 77, 180–181n10

  Dress rehearsal (theater), 133–134

  Duggirala, Vasanta, 76, 180n10

  Dunlosky, John, 21, 149, 167, 174n10, 188n8, 191n22

  Dunn, Barnaby, 167, 191n21

  Dutch language, 38, 100

  Earthquakes, 13

  Ebbinghaus, Hermann, 126–130, 149, 186n12

  Education (discipline), 5, 6, 29–30, 90

  Ehrman, Madeline, 24, 174n13, 194

  Eich, James, 154–155, 189n14

  Elizabeth II, Queen of England, 62

  Emery, Lisa, 138, 187n20

  Encoding specificity, 154, 155, 156, 157

  England, 98, 100

  English language, 2, 158

  as a baseline for learning other languages, 38–39

  difficulty of learning, 35

  figurative language in, 61–65, 105, 111–113

  filled pauses in, 73

  history of, 34, 97–100

  in relation to other languages, 4, 5, 38, 46, 61, 78, 80, 82–85, 131, 148

  interlanguage, 46–48

  as a lingua franca, 75

  native speakers of, 82, 83–85

  phoneme-grapheme correspondence in, 33–35

  phonemes of, 81–82

  vocabulary, size of, 102–105

  Ericsson, K. Anders, 145–146, 188n5

  Ervin-Tripp, Susan, 72, 179n2

  Exaggeration, 62

  Expertise, 7, 29, 64, 78, 143–146

  Extroversion, 69, 135

  False cognates. See False friends

  False friends, 98, 101

  Federalist Papers, 104

  Feeney, Aiden, 134–135, 187n18

  Ferrucci, Luigi, 18, 173n6

  Fertilizer fallacy, 20–21

  Figurative language, 43, 59–65, 90

  Figures of speech. See Figurative language

  Filled pause, 73

  Fine, Harold, 61, 177n6, 177n7

  Finke, Ronald, 157, 190n16

  Finnish language, 35

  Fitzgerald, James, 104, 183n6

  Flashcards, 3, 17, 106, 127

  Flege, James, 54, 82–85, 176n1, 181n16, 181–182n17

  Flouting (maxims of conversation), 57–59

  Fluency, 146

  achieving native-like, 3, 22, 143

  bilingual, 74

  defining, 40, 44, 77, 95

  as a function of age, 3, 18, 66, 82–83

  as a function of common ground, 49–50

  interlanguage, 45

  Fluency (cont.)

  measuring, 40–45

  in one’s native language, 4, 72

  vs. proficiency, 40–41

  of teachers, 88–90

  reading aloud, 123

  self-efficacy, 23–24, 87

  Fogarty, Sarah, 154–155, 189n14

  Fong, Geoffrey, 20, 174n9

  Foreign Service, 16, 156

  Foreign Service Institute (FSI), 36–40, 41, 48, 50

  Forgetting curve, 128–129

  Fossilization, 47–48, 50, 51

  Foster, Donald, 104, 183n6

  Fox, Patrick, 154–155, 189–190n14

  Frankel, Arthur, 27, 175n14

  Fratiglioni, Laura, 77, 181n12

  Freedman, Morris, 76, 180n9

  French language, 2, 16, 25, 45, 80, 89, 126, 143

  formal vs. informal forms, 50

  in high school, 143

  in relation to other languages, 5, 33, 35, 39, 75, 82

  as a root of English, 98–101

  as a “world” language, 12, 38

  Frontier words, 104

  FSI Speak, 48

  Fulmer, C. Ashley, 69, 178n15

  Gardner, Howard, 5, 172n3

  Gelfand, Michele, 69, 178n15

  Gender (grammatical), 97, 101

  Germanic, 97, 99, 100

  German language, 2, 69, 75, 86, 107, 158, 166, 167

  dialects of, 108–109

  in relation to other languages, 112, 124, 127

  phoneme-grapheme correspondence in, 34

  as a root of English, 97–100

  as a “world” language, 38, 39

  Germany, 97, 108

  as a country with one official language, 75

  as a low-context culture, 68

  Mark Twain in, 69

  Ghoti, 34

  Gibbs, Ray, 112–113, 184n12

  Gilmartin, Kevin, 145–146, 188n5

  Gilovich, Thomas, 16–17, 173n5

 
Gladwell, Malcom, 146, 188n5

  Glisky, Elizabeth, 120, 185n6

  Goal setting, 21–22, 44

  Godden, Duncan, 154–155, 189n14

  Golden, Ann-Marie, 167, 191n21

  Gollan, Tamar, 74, 75, 179n5, 179n7

  Graesser, Arthur, 8, 172n4

  Grahn, Jessica, 74, 179n4

  Grammar, 29, 42–43, 54, 55–56, 83–85

  Grapheme, 33, 35

  Greek language, 28, 35, 100, 101, 112

  Green, David, 74, 75, 179n5, 179n7

  Grégoire, Jacques, 118, 184n2

  Grice, H. Paul, 56–57, 60, 61, 176–177n3

  Griffin, Dale, 15, 173n3

  Gruneberg, Michael, 165, 190n20, 194

  Guillot, Marie-Noèlle, 40, 176n5

  Habit formation, 19–23

  how long it takes, 19

  setbacks, 20

  Hakuta, Kenji, 54, 176n1

  Hale, Sandra, 138, 187n20

  Hall, Edward, 68, 178n12, 178n13

  Hambrick, David, 146, 188n5

  Hampshire, Adam, 74, 179n4

  “Hard” languages, 38

  Hasher, Lynn, 120, 185n6

  “Have a nice day” (expression), 66, 162

  Hawaiian language, 81

  Hayakawa, Sayuri, 96–97, 182n4

  Healy, Noreen, 102, 183n5

  Hebrew, 35

  Heine, Marilyn, 142, 187n2

  Heisig, James, 132, 186n15

  Henry VIII, King of England, 100

  Herrmann, Douglas, 165, 167, 190n20, 191n22, 191n23, 194

  Heuristics, 13–18

  Higgins, E. Tory, 69, 178n15

  High-context culture, 68–69

  High German (Hochdeutsch), 108–109

  High school classmates, memory for, 146–147

  High school Spanish, memory for, 137–138, 148–149

  Hill, Emma, 167, 191n21

  Hill, Susan, 154–155, 190n14

  Hillary, Edmund, 88–89

  Hindsight bias, 18

  Hiraeth, 96

  Hiragana. See Kana

  Hitch, Graham, 119–120, 185n5

  Hoffmann, Janina, 134, 186–187n17

  Howard, Robert, 74, 179n4

  Hu, Xiangen, 8, 172n4

  Humor, 45, 57, 63, 106

  Hungarian language, 86, 110

  Husted Medvec, Victoria, 16–17, 173n5

  Hyland, Andrew, 20, 174n9

  Hyperbole, 62–63

  Identity, establishing in a foreign language, 69, 70, 87

  Idiolect, 104

  Idiomatic expressions, 43, 55, 62–63, 65–66, 105, 112–113, 119, 125

  Illocutionary force, 59–60

  Imagery, use of vivid, 165–166, 167

  Imai, Satomi, 83, 181–182n17

  Incubation, 157

  India, 76

  Indirect requests, 62–63

  Indonesian language, 38

  Interagency Language Roundtable (ILR), 37–38, 41–44, 45, 55, 176n2

 

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