Interference
aging and, 138
proactive, 136–138, 157
retroactive, 136–137
Interlanguage, 45–48, 51
Introversion, 69, 135
Irony, 41, 62–63
Italian language, 38, 40, 75, 83, 99, 100, 101, 138
Japan
as a country with one official language, 75
as a culture that values indirectness, 62
as a high-context culture, 68
introversion in, 69
Japanese language, 2, 35
concept of dog in, 110
English loan words in, 131
in relation to other languages, 68, 101, 112
phoneme-grapheme correspondence in, 35
rate of speech, 78
as a “super hard” language, 38
writing systems of, 11, 131–132
Jarvis, Gilbert, 96, 182n3
Jaynes, Julian, 61, 177n7
Jeopardy! (TV series), 71
Johnson, Blair, 152, 189n11
Johnson, Mark, 111, 184n10
Jokes, understanding, 95
Jones, E. E., 28, 175n15
Kahneman, David, 13, 15, 172n1, 173n3
Kana, 11
Hiragana, 11, 132
Katakana, 11, 131–132
Kanji, 132
Karp, Anita, 77, 181n12
Kasper, Gabriele, 66, 70, 178n11, 178n16
Kaul, Subhash, 76, 180n10
Kaushanskaya, Margarita, 97, 182–183n4
Kesebir, Selin, 152, 189n11
Kesper, Nadja, 111–112, 184n11
Keysar, Boaz, 96–97, 182n4
Keyword mnemonic, 166, 167
Kim-Prieto, Chu, 69, 178n15
Kingham, Peter, 154–155, 189–190n14
Kirker, William, 150, 188n9
Knowledge structures. See Schemata; Scripts
Korea
as a culture that values indirectness, 62
as a high-context culture, 68
Korean language, 1–2, 68, 88
accent based on age of arrival in US, 82–85
in relation to other languages, 46, 64, 65, 101
rhetorical questions in, 64–65
as a “super hard” language, 38
Krampe, Ralf, 145–146, 188n5
Krashen, Stephen, 3, 171n2
Kreuz, Roger, 58, 62, 68, 177n4, 178n14
Krizan, Zlatan, 9, 172n7
Kroll, Judith, 77, 181n11
Kruglanski, Arie, 69, 178n15
Kuiper, Nicholas, 150, 188n9
Lakoff, George, 111, 184n10
Lally, Phillippa, 19, 173n8
Lambert, Wallace, 76, 180n8
Lamendella, John, 47, 176n9
Language and thought relationship, 96–97
Language-designated position (LDP), 37–38
Language Sherpa, 89
Language zombie, 70
Latham, Gary, 21, 174n11
Latin, 99, 100, 101, 163
Leaver, Betty Lou, 194
Legal doublets, 99
Lemma, 103–104
Levels of processing. See Depth of processing
Levelt, Willem, 72, 179n2
Leventer, Richard, 120, 185n7
Levin, Joel, 167, 191n22
Levy, Becca, 18, 173n6
Lexeme, 104
Li, Qiang, 20, 174n9
Lin, Pei-Ying, 96, 182n2
Linguistics, 5, 6, 8
Lip reading, 91, 95
Literal meaning, 59–61, 105
Littlemore, Jeannette, 65, 66, 178n9, 178n10
Liu, Serena, 54, 82–85, 176n1, 181n16
Loanwords, 35, 131
Locke, Edwin, 21, 174n11
Lockhart, Robert, 122–123, 185n9
Lockl, Kathrin, 9, 172n6
Locutionary act, 59
Long, Michael, 3, 171n2
Lord, Charles, 151, 188n10
“Love is a journey” (conceptual metaphor), 111
Low-context culture, 68–69
Low German (Plattdeutsch), 108–109
Luidia ciliaris (starfish), 6
Luk, Gigi, 76, 180n8
MacDonald, John, 91, 182n1
Mackay, Ian, 83, 181–182n17
Macnamara, Brooke, 146, 188n5
Madey, Scott, 16–17, 173n5
“Magical number seven,” 116–117
“Magic word” (politeness), 10
Maltz, Maxwell, 19, 173n8
Mandell, Arielle, 142, 187n3
Mappings, conceptual, 111–113
Marcus, Gary, 194
Marian, Viorica, 97, 182–183n4
Marinova-Todd, Stefka, 3, 171n2
Marsh, Elizabeth, 21, 149, 174n10, 188n8
Marshall, C. R., 48, 176n10
Martin, Michelle, 76, 180n8
Massed practice, 21
Mastery
attributions of, 1, 18
cognitive load and, 134
as a function of perceived language difficulty, 12, 38–39
grammatical, 83–85
interlanguage, 45–47, 50
phonemic, 81–85
planning fallacy and, 15–16
Mastery (cont.)
pragmatic, 54–55, 61, 70
as a result of practice, 143
self-efficacy, 24–25
vocabulary, 101–105
zone of proximal development and, 29–30
Matlin, Margaret, 153, 189n12
Maxims of conversation, 56–59
Maxim of Manner, 57
Maxim of Quality, 56–58
Maxim of Quantity, 56
Maxim of Relation, 57–58
May, Cynthia, 120, 185n6
McDaniel, Mark, 193
McGurk, Harry, 91, 182n1
McGurk effect, 91–93
McNeill, Ann, 20, 174n9
McNeill, David, 139–141, 187n1
Medical residents, 30
Memory. See also Chunking; Digit Span; Interference; Method of loci; Peg system; Recall vs. recognition; Release from proactive interference; Rote memorization
autobiographical, 97, 147, 152
long-term, 8, 19, 120, 124, 126, 137, 142, 147
recall, 116, 122, 126, 135–137, 139, 141, 147–148, 150, 152, 153, 154–155, 161–162, 166–167
recognition, 123, 126, 129–130, 147, 150–151, 163
semantic, 161
short-term, 117
working, 115–121, 124, 125, 130–132, 135, 145
Memory Palace technique, 164
Memory span. See Digit span
Memory theater, 164
Metacognition, 9, 10, 31, 54, 88, 90, 107, 138
Metalinguistics, 9, 10, 53–54, 101
Metamemory, 9, 10
Metaphor, 43, 61–63, 65, 110–113
conceptual, 111–113
frozen, 111
Metaphoric intelligence, 66
Metaphors We Live By, 111
Metapragmatics, 70
Metcalfe, Janet, 31, 175n18
Method of loci, 163–165, 167
Michelangelo, 1
Middle English, 97, 99
Miller, George, 116–117, 132, 184n1
Mnemonic devices, 165–167
Moffatt, Gregory, 3, 171–172n2
Monolingualism, 75–77
Mood, effects of, 118, 152, 155
Morgan, Charles, 154–155, 189–190n14
Mori, M., 70, 179n17
Mosteller, Frederick, 104, 183n6
Motivation, 5, 12, 15, 18, 22, 23, 24, 47, 86, 143
Mount Everest, 88–89
Multilingualism, 74–75
Multitasking, 75, 121
Murphy, Dennis, 154, 189–190n14
Muscle memory, 123
Myerson, Joel, 138, 187n20
Myths about foreign language learning, 3–5
Narrative structure, 8
Nathan, Mitchell J., 21, 149, 174n10, 188n8
National Foreign Affairs Training Center (NFACTC), 37
Native Americans, 162
>
Native speakers, pros and cons of learning from, 31, 88–90
Navrady, Lauren, 167, 190–191n21
Navratilova, Martina, 26–28
Neuroscience, 5, 6
New York Times, The, 45, 62
Nissan, Jack, 76–77, 180n10
Noise, 7, 94
Nonliteral language, 59–60. See also Figurative language
Nonsense syllable, 127–130
Norman (Old French), 98
Norman Invasion, 98, 99
Norway, 68
Norwegian language, 100
Ober, Beth, 142, 187n2
O’Connor, Richard, 20, 174n9
Office of the Inspector General (OIG), 39
Ogden, Charles, 105, 183n7
Ohsugi, Hironori, 121, 185n8
Oishi, Shigehiro, 152, 189n11
Old English, 97
Old French, 98
Olympics, winners at events, 17
Opera singers, 41
Original learning time, 127, 128
Ortony, Andrew, 113, 184n13
Oshlag, Rebecca, 113, 184n13
Osser, Harry, 78, 181n13
Oswald, Frederick, 146, 188n5
Other-reference, 150–151
Outliers, 146
Overgeneralization, 46
Overlearning, 28, 148–149
Owen, Adrian, 74, 179n4
Pauses, 72
Peal, Elizabeth, 76, 180n8
Peg system, 165, 167
Peng, Frederick, 78, 181n13
Perceptual generalization, 78–81
Perkins, David, 106–107, 183n8, 183n9
Perlmann, Rivka, 10, 172n8
Perlocutionary effect, 60, 64
Permastore, 148–149
Petrie, Hugh, 113, 184n13
Pham, Lien, 15–16, 173n4
Philosophy, 5, 6, 56, 59, 96, 11
Phoneme-grapheme correspondence, 33–35
Phonemes, 33, 81–82
difficulty in mastering in other languages, 81–82, 85, 86–88, 110
number in different languages, 81
Phonetic alphabet, 94
Pierro, Antonio, 69, 178n15
Pimsleur, Paul, 35, 175n2
Pisoni, David, 80, 181n15
Planning fallacy, 15–16
Polish language, 101
Politeness, 10, 42, 50, 51, 63, 107, 134–135
Pollio, Howard, 61, 177n6, 177n7
Pollio, Marilyn, 61, 177n6, 177n7
Pollyanna Principle, 153
Poppins, Mary, 11
Portuguese language, 2, 16, 155–156
in relation to other languages, 4, 99, 100
as a “world” language, 38
Positive information, superiority of, 153
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 154–155
Potts, Henry, 19, 173–174n8
Practice, 21, 106, 107, 143–149, 156–157
Pragmatics, 53–70, 87, 88, 95, 109
Pratte, Michael, 119, 184–185n4
Preminger, Alex, 62, 177n8
Primary Colors, 104
Proficiency, 28, 37–38, 40–45, 66, 101, 134, 156
advanced professional proficiency (level 4), 44, 55
elementary proficiency (level 1), 42
general professional proficiency (level 3), 43–44
limited working proficiency (level 2), 42–43
native or bilingual proficiency (level 5), 55
Prototypes, 96
Psycho-Cybernetics, 19
Psycholinguistics, 6
Psychology, 5, 6, 19, 23, 25, 29, 35, 129, 149, 160–161
Puns, 10
Rackham, H., 163, 190n19
Rawson, Katherine, 21, 149, 174n10, 188n8
Raybeck, Douglas, 165, 190n20, 194
Readiness (cognitive state), 29
Rebonato, Riccardo, 13, 173n2
Recall vs. recognition, 126, 147–148, 150
Reeve, Christopher, 139
Rehearsal, 124–125
Relearning, 20, 125–130, 137, 157
Relearning time, 128
Release from proactive interference, 137, 138, 157
Remembering the Kanji, 132
Restaurant scripts, differing, 158–161
Rhetorical questions, 60, 62–63, 64
Rieskamp, Jörg, 134, 186–187n17
Rivkin, Inna, 15–16, 173n4
Roberts, Richard, 58, 62, 68, 177n4, 178n14
Robots, 70
Roediger, Henry, 193
Roese, Neal, 18, 173n7
Rogers, Timothy, 150, 188n9
Romance languages, 99, 100, 138
Romanian language, 99
Romans, ancient, 99, 163, 164
Romansh, 75
Ross, Michael, 15, 173n3
Rote memorization, 3, 65, 112, 119, 123, 143
Rouder, Jeffrey, 119, 184–185n4
Rules of thumb. See Heuristics
Russian language, 38, 101, 112
Salomon, Gavriel, 106–107, 183n8, 183n9
Salthouse, Timothy, 71–72, 142, 179n1, 187n3
Sarcasm, 44, 58
Savings (relearning), 128–129
Scaffolding, 30
Scandanavian Languages, 97
Scarcella, Robin, 3, 171n2
Schadenfreude, 124
Schank, Roger, 161, 190n17
Schellenberg, Glenn, 167, 190–191n21
Schemata, 161–162
Schizophrenic language, 58, 68
Schleppegrell, Mary, 3, 119, 171–172n2, 184n3
Schneider, Wolfgang, 9, 172n6
School of Language Studies (FSI), 37
Scopas, 163
Scripts and script errors, 160–163
Segmentation, 78
Seinfeld (TV series), 117
Selective attention, 75
Self-defeating thoughts, 3
Self-efficacy, 23–26, 28
Self-esteem, 25
Self-fulfilling prophecy, 24–25, 28, 144
Self-handicapping, 27–28
Self-reference effect, 150–152, 166
Selinker, Larry, 45–48, 176n8, 176n9
Shailaja, Mekala, 76, 180n10
Shallow vs. deep processing, 122–124, 150, 152
Shaw, George Bernard, 34
Shekhtman, Boris, 194
Shenaut, Gregory, 142, 187n2
Shukla, Anuj, 76, 180n10
Silence, in conversation, 66–67, 68
Simile, 62–63, 110, 117
Simon, Herbert, 13, 145–146, 172–173n1, 188n4, 188n5
Simonides of Ceos, 163
Simons, Daniel, 121, 185n8, 193
Simulation heuristic, 14–17
Situational attribution, 27
Skowronski, John, 153 189n12
Slade, Martin, 18, 173n6
Slater, Pamela, 129, 186n13
Slavic languages, 101
Slowing hypothesis, 71–72
Smith, Giles, 26–27, 174n14
Smith, Steven, 157, 190n16
Smoking cessation, 20
Snow, Catherine, 3, 171n2
Snyder, Mel, 27, 174–175n14
Southwick, Steven, 154–155, 189–190n14
Spanish language, 35, 75, 110
concept of dog in, 110
as an example of depth of processing, 19–20
studying in high school, 24, 137–138, 143, 148–149
in relation to other languages, 80, 99–101, 112
phoneme-grapheme correspondence in, 35
as a “world” language, 38, 39, 40
Special English, 105
Speech act theory, 59–60
Speech errors, 44, 48
Speech habits, 48
Speech pathologists, 40, 86
Speech rate, 40, 78
Speed vs. accuracy, 71–73
Squire, Larry, 129, 186n13
Stang, David, 153, 189n12
Stenton, Robert, 74, 179n4
Stereotypes, 18, 144, 158
Streep, Meryl, 86
Stroo
p Test, 75
Study partner, importance of, 22
“Super hard” languages, 12, 22, 38, 40
Surampudi, Bapiraju, 76–77, 180n10
Sutton, E. W., 163, 190n19
Swahili, 38, 75
Swedish language, 38, 100
Switzerland, 75, 158–159, 161
Symons, Cynthia, 152, 189n11
Taylor, Shelly, 15–16, 173n4
Teachable moment, 30
Teasdale, John, 154–155, 189n14
Telephone, talking on, 93–94, 95
Telephone numbers, length of, 115–117
Telephone numbers, remembering, 135–136
Television, watching with no sound, 94–95
Tennis, 26–28, 31
10,000 hours to acquire expertise, 145–146
Tenzing, Norgay, 89
Tesch-Römer, Clemens, 145–146, 188n5
Thai, 39, 101
Thiele, Jonathan, 119, 184–185n4
Thomas, Margaret, 167, 191n22
Thompson, Charles, 153 189n12
Thomson, Donald, 154, 189n13
Time of day, studying at same, 23
Time pressure, 132, 134
Tip of the tongue (TOT) states, 71, 139–143
Top-down processing, 7–8, 64, 91–95, 157
Transfer, 5, 46, 79–80, 106–109, 124
Trebek, Alex, 71
Trehub, Sandra, 167, 190–191n21
Tucker, G. Richard, 75, 179n6
Tulving, Endel, 122–123, 154, 185–186n9, 189n13
Turkey, 69
Tversky, Amos, 13, 15, 172–173n1, 173n3
Twain, Mark, 69
Ugly American stereotype, 158
Unabomber, 104
Uncanny valley, 70
Understatement, 62–63
United States, 2, 80, 90, 159, 161. See also Americans
accents of South Koreans in, 82–85
chunking dates from US history, 116–117, 120
classifying regional dialects of, 80
conversational norms of, 66–67, 89, 162–163
as a culture that values directness, 62
dialect of German taught in, 108
as a low-context culture, 68
scripts (expectations) in, 159–161
Unspeakableness project, 96
Urdu, 38
Van der Linden, Martial, 118, 184n2
van Jaarsveld, Cornelia, 19, 173–174n8
Verhaeghen, Paul, 120, 185n7
Vocabulary, 17, 26, 40, 70, 97–100, 109, 110, 137, 138, 140, 164
as part of one’s common ground, 48
idiolect, 104
as an indicator of proficiency, 42–45, 46, 55, 56, 61, 101
memory for, 119, 123–125, 127, 130, 149, 153, 154, 166
metalinguistic skill in learning, 54
rate of speech, 78
receptive, 103–105
self-reference effect, 87
size in Basic English, 105
size in bilinguals, 76
size in English, 101–104
size needed in a foreign language, 101–105, 110
strategies for building, 19, 28, 65, 66, 90, 97–100, 106, 119, 125, 137, 149
“tip of the tongue” and, 139–143
Vohs, Kathleen, 18, 173n7
Voice of America, 105
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