Another Darkness, Another Dawn
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106 G. Fãcãoaru, Câteva date în jurul familiei si statului biopolitic, Bucureşti (1941), trans. in V. Ionescu, ‘Deportations from Romania’, http://romafacts.uni-graz.at (accessed 19 May 2013). See also V. Solonari, ‘Ethnic Cleansing or “Crime Prevention”? Deportation of Romanian Roma’, in Weiss-Wendt, The Nazi Genocide of the Roma, chapter four.
107 Survivor testimony of Ferenc Horváth in K. Katz, ‘The Roma of Hungary in the Second World War’, in Kenrick, The Final Chapter, p. 69.
108 Quoted in Tebbutt, ‘History and Memory’, pp. 179–95.
109 For other survivor testimonies see the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Fortunoff Video Archive, Washington, D.C.; the SHOAH Video Testimony Collection, Yale University. J. von dem Knesebeck, The Roma Struggle for Compensation in Post-war Germany (Hatfield, 2011), chapter two, gives a valuable overview of the extent and meaning of Roma survivor testimonies. Katz, ‘The Roma of Hungary’, pp.47–85, is based on first-hand accounts.
110 The following is taken from his autobiography, Winter Time.
111 The following account is taken from the reconstruction of his story, which was in part written down while in hiding in 1944 and in part was told to Alexander Ramati, who published it as And the Violins Stopped Playing. A Story of the Gypsy Holocaust (London, 1985).
112 Ramati, And the Violins Stopped Playing, p. 112.
113 On this point see von dem Knesebeck, The Roma Struggle, pp. 57–9.
114 More details of Nazi experiments on Gypsies can be found in L. Eiber, ‘The persecution of the Sinti and Roma in Munich, 1933–45’, in Tebbutt, Sinti and Roma, pp. 17–33.
115 Yale University: Fortunoff Video archive for Holocaust Testimonies, Testimony of Anna W, www.library.yale.edu/testimonies/excerpts/annaw.html. Recorded between 1979 and 1981 (accessed 15 November 2012).
116 See C. Bernadac, L’Holocauste oublié (Paris, 1979); see also Fraser, The Gypsies, pp. 256–69.
SIX A New Dawn?
1 M. Marrus, The Unwanted: European Refugees from the First World War Through the Cold War (Philadelphia, PA, 2002), pp. 296–308.
2 See for example I. Connor, Refugees and Expellees in Post-war Germany (Manchester, 2007); P. Panayi, Ethnic Minorities in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Germany: Jews, Gypsies, Poles, Turks and Others (London, 2000), chapter six.
3 M. Brenner, After the Holocaust: Rebuilding Jewish Lives in Post-war Germany (Princeton, NJ, 1997), pp. 60–63. More generally, a comprehensive introduction to Germany in this period can be found in M. Fulbrook, German National Identity after the Holocaust (Cambridge, 1998).
4 P. Sander, ‘Criminal Justice Following the Genocide of the Sinti and Roma’, in D. Kenrick, The Gypsies During the Second World War: 3 The Final Chapter (Hatfield, 2006), pp. 154–8.
5 W. Wippermann, ‘Compensation Withheld: The Denial of Reparations to the Sinti and Roma’, in Kenrick, The Final Chapter, pp. 171–7; S. Milton, ‘Persecuting the Survivors’, in S. Tebbutt, ed., Sinti and Roma: Gypsies in German-speaking Society and Literature (New York and Oxford, 1998), p. 38.
6 W. Winter, Winter Time. Memoirs of a German Sinto who Survived Auschwitz, trans. S. Robertson (Hatfield, 2004), p. 119.
7 Milton, ‘Persecuting the Survivors’, p. 39. Full German passports lasted ten years and were issued free of charge.
8 J. von dem Knesebeck, The Roma Struggle for Compensation in Post-war Germany (Hatfield, 2011), pp. 59–61.
9 Otto Pankok quoted in G. Margalit, Germany and its Gypsies: A Post-Auschwitz Ordeal (Madison, WI, 2002), pp. 58–9.
10 HStAD/H 1 Nr. 6392, Head of Alsfeld district administration to all district mayors, 27 March 1947, re Decree from the Ministry of the Interior, 3 March 1947.
11 Panayi, Ethnic Minorities, p. 233; Milton, ‘Persecuting the Survivors’, pp. 36–7.
12 J. Sigot, ‘Camp Allemand ou Camp Français?’, Etudes Tsiganes, VI/2 (1995), pp. 55–6.
13 S. P. Imbert, Les tsiganes: analyse d’une politique d’insertion à Toulouse (Toulouse, 1999), p. 47.
14 J-P. Liégois, ‘Tsiganes, Nomades et Pouvoirs Publics en France au 20e siècle: du rejet a l’assimilation’, Pluriel débat, 19 (1979), pp. 74–5.
15 S. Nicholas, ‘From John Bull to John Citizen: Images of National Identity and Citizenship in the Wartime BBC’, in The Right to Belong: Citizenship and National Identity in Britain, 1930–60, ed. R. Weight and A. Beach (London, 1998), p. 45.
16 B. Taylor, A Minority and the State: Travellers in Britain in the Twentieth Century (Manchester, 2008), p. 158.
17 TNA, AST 7/1480, Arbroath Area Office, ‘Tinkers’.
18 Taylor, A Minority and the State, pp. 174–6.
19 Z. Barany, The Eastern European Gypsies: Regime Change, Marginality and Ethno-politics (Cambridge, 2002), pp. 114–15.
20 Quoted in D. Crowe, A History of the Gypsies of Eastern Europe and Russia (Basingstoke, 2006), p. 55.
21 Ibid., p. 20.
22 S. Pashov, Romano esi (1949) 1:1, n.p.
23 Crowe, History of the Gypsies, p. 20.
24 A. Fraser, The Gypsies (Oxford, 1995), p. 270.
25 Crowe, History of the Gypsies, pp. 54–5.
26 I. Tomova, The Gypsies in the Transition Period (Sofia, 1995), p. 17.
27 E. Marushiakova and V. Popov, ‘State policies under communism’, fact sheets on Roma, Council of Europe, http://romafacts.uni-graz.at, accessed 29 April 2013.
28 A fictionalized account of her life can be found in C. McCann’s Zoli (New York, 2007).
29 R. Gronemeyer and G. Rakelmann, Die Zigeuner. Reisende in Europa (Köln, 1988), p. 121.
30 Fraser, The Gypsies, p. 280.
31 R. J. Crampton, Concise History of Bulgaria (Cambridge, 2005), p. 191; Crowe, History of the Gypsies, p. 21.
32 E. MacColl and P. Seeger, Till Doomsday in the Afternoon: The Folklore of a Family of Scots Travellers, the Stewarts of Blairgowrie (Manchester, 1986), p. 16.
33 Fraser, The Gypsies, pp. 272–4; A. Reyniers, ‘Quelques jalons pour comprendre l’économie tsigane’, Etudes Tsiganes, XII/2 (1998), p. 7.
34 TNA HLG71/1650, background notes for Parliamentary Question, 19 June 1956. Note the automatic assumption that when Gypsy Travellers adopted seemingly urban, and definitely not picturesque, scrap-metal-dealing, they could not be ‘pure-bred gypsies’.
35 TNA HLG 71/2267, internal MHLG memo, 10 October 1956.
36 HStAD/H1 Nr. 1953, district president of Darmstadt to Hessian minister of the interior, 10 April 1956.
37 HStAD/H1 Nr. 1953, Hessian minister of the interior to district presidents of Darmstadt, Kassel and Wiesbaden, 7 May 1953.
38 Milton, ‘Persecuting the Survivors’, pp. 36–7.
39 J. Connors, ‘Seven Weeks of Childhood: An Autobiography’, in J. Sandford, Gypsies (London, 1973), pp. 166–7.
40 Central Public Archive: Sofia, Bulgaria (hereafter CPA), f. 1, op. 6, minutes #A182, Secretariat of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party, 4 June 1959, letter appended to minutes, 16 June 1959.
41 Ibid.
42 D. Crowe, ‘The Gypsies in Hungary’, in The Gypsies of Eastern Europe, ed. D. Crowe and J. Kolsti (New York and London, 1992), pp. 120–21.
43 Crowe, ‘Gypsies in Hungary’, pp. 122–3.
44 CPA, f. 1, op. 6, a.e. 3753, Law Against Vagrancy and Begging, 1 November 1958. It did however specifically exclude the seasonal nomadism of farmers from its terms.
45 CPA, f. 1, op. 6, a.e. 3753, ‘Project Decree for the Arrangement of the Issue of the Gypsy Population in Bulgaria’, 1 November 1958, pp. 10–11.
46 Ibid., pp. 11–12.
47 Ibid., p. 13.
48 Helsinki Watch, Destroying Ethnic Identity (New York and Washington, DC, 1991), p. 13; C. Silverman, ‘Bulgarian Gypsies: adaptation in a socialist context’, Nomadic Peoples (1986), p. 53.
49 Crowe, History of the Gypsies, p. 22.
50 CPA, Decision of the Secretariat of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party, approved in
minutes #850 of the Secretariat, 27 September 1978; Helsinki Watch, Destroying Ethnic Identity, pp. 29–34.
51 E. Marushiakova and V. Popov, ‘State Policies under Communism’, http://romafacts.uni-graz.at, accessed 14 May 2013.
52 Quoted in ERRC, Always Somewhere Else: Anti-Gypsyism in France (Budapest, 2005), p. 57.
53 Quoted in E. Aubin, ‘1912–1969: La liberté d’aller et venir des nomades: l’idéologie sécuritaire’, Etudes Tsiganes, VII/1 (1996), p. 16; and E. Aubin, ‘L’évolution du droit français applicable aux Tsiganes: Les quatres logiques du législateur républicain’, Etudes Tsiganes (2000), pp. 15 and 33.
54 Taylor, A Minority and the State, 188.
55 Imbert, Les tsiganes, p. 13.
56 Recorded details included skin/eye/hair colour, body type and other defining physical features. ERRC, Always Somewhere Else, pp. 64 and 70; Imbert, Les tsiganes, pp. 86–7; Aubin, ‘L’évolution du droit français’, pp. 32–3 and ‘1912–1969’, p. 36; M. Bidet, ‘Will French Gypsies Always Stay Nomadic and Out of the Law-making Process?’ in N. Sigona and R. Zetter, Romani Mobilities in Europe: Multidisciplinary Perspectives, Refugees Study Centre, University of Oxford, 14–15 January 2010, p. 22.
57 They had, for example, in 1927 taken the lead in Bulgaria in petitioning against the United States’ execution of the two anarchists Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti.
58 D. Kenrick, The Romani World (Hatfield, 2004), p. 106.
59 Quoted in Imbert, Les tsiganes, pp. 66–9.
60 Helsinki Watch, Destroying Ethnic Identity, p. 14.
61 Marushiakova and Popov, ‘State Policies under Communism’.
62 T. Acton, Gypsy Politics and Social Change. The Development of Ethnic Ideology and Pressure Politics among British Gypsies from Victorian Reformism to Romani Nationalism (Oxford, 1974), p. 167.
63 Ibid., p. 163.
64 G. Puxon, ‘Gypsies: The Road to Liberation’, Race Today (June 1971). He is here, of course, adapting the words of Stokely Carmichael.
65 Y. Matras, ‘The Development of the Romani Civil Rights Movement in Germany, 1945–96’, in Tebbutt, Sinti and Roma, p. 52.
66 Matras, ‘Romani Civil Rights’, p. 55.
67 Directorate of Judicial affairs quoted in V. Repaire, ‘La construction du lien social à l’école ou les enjeux de la scolarisation des enfants tsiganes’, unpublished phD thesis, Université de Paris V, 2004, p. 116.
68 A. Cotonnec and A. Chartier, ‘Ils nous mettent au fond des classes: parole preliminaire sur l’ecole’, Etudes Tsiganes, 4 (1984), p. 9.
69 J. Stockins with M. King and M. Knight, On The Cobbles: Jimmy Stockin: The Life Of A Bare-Knuckle Gypsy Warrior (Edinburgh, 2000), pp. 46–7.
70 D. Lüken-Klaßen and S. Meixner, Roma in Public Education (Bamberg, 2004), p. 5.
71 CPA, Decision of the Secretariat of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party, approved in minutes #850 of the Secretariat, 27 September 1978; Helsinki Watch, Destroying Ethnic Identity, pp. 29–34.
72 Manush Romanov, quoted in Helsinki Watch, Destroying Ethnic Identity, p. 31.
73 P. Saunders, J. Clarke and S. Kendall, eds, Gypsies and Travellers in their Own Words: Words and Pictures of Travelling Life (Leeds, 2000), pp. 10–11.
74 See Repaire, ‘La construction du lien social’, pp. 167–8 for a discussion of the limitations of this approach.
75 J.-P. Liégois, ‘L’accès aux droits sociaux des populations tsiganes en France: rapport d’étude de la Direction générale de l’action sociale’ (Rennes, 2007), pp. 102–3.
76 A. S. Spinelli, ‘La scolarisation des enfants tsiganes’, in Tsiganes à l’école: Pédagogie interculturelle pour l’accès aux apprentissages, ed. F. Malique (Paris, 2003), pp. 40–42; N. Lafaurie, ‘L’ école des Cailloux Gris D’Herblay: une école tsigane à part entière, récupération ou abandon?’, Etudes Tsiganes, 4 (1984), pp. 31–4.
77 Taylor, A Minority and the State, p. 199.
78 D. Hawes and B. Perez, The Gypsy and the State: The Ethnic Cleansing of British Society (Bristol, 1996), pp. 30–32.
79 Association of Chief Police Officers Archive, Open University, Milton Keynes: ACPO, DOE, ‘The accommodation needs of long-distance and regional Travellers: a consultation paper’, February 1982, Appendix 3.
80 Crowe, History of the Gypsies, p. 25.
81 Crampton, Concise History of Bulgaria, pp. 193–4.
82 P. Gocheva, ‘The Mysteries of the Last Census’, Duoma (27 April 1993); Crowe, History of the Gypsies, p. 25.
83 For an insight into controls governing research under socialism see Helsinki Watch, Destroying Ethnic Identity, p. 13.
84 Silverman, ‘Bulgarian Gypsies’, p. 53.
85 Ibid.
86 This was a feature across socialist countries. See for example J. Wedel, The Unplanned Society: Poland During and After Communism (New York, 1992).
87 Silverman, ‘Bulgarian Gypsies’, p. 54.
88 I. Tomova, Ethnic Dimensions of Poverty in Bulgaria (Washington, DC, 1998).
89 Helsinki Watch, Destroying Ethnic Identity, p. 38.
90 Tomova, Gypsies in the Transition, p. 50.
91 Ibid., pp. 9, 17 and 21–2.
92 Ibid.
93 Crowe, History of the Gypsies, p. 27.
94 Tomova, Gypsies in the Transition, p. 55.
95 Kenrick, The Romani World, p. 57.
96 An introduction to anti-Roma violence can be found in M. Stewart, ed., The Gypsy Menace: Populism and the New Anti-Gypsy Politics (London, 2012). Also see separate country entries in Kenrick, The Romani World.
97 Lüken-Klaßen and Meixner, ‘Roma in Public Education’, p. 6.
98 Quoted in van dem Knesebeck, The Roma Struggle, p. 227.
99 Barany, The East European Gypsies, pp. 243–7.
100 P. Panayi, ‘Racial Violence in the New Germany, 1990–93’, Contemporary European History, III/3 (1994), pp. 265–87.
101 Hawes and Perez, The Gypsy and the State, p. 122.
102 According to evidence introduced at later court cases, South Bucks v Porter, Wrexham CBC v Berry and Chichester DC v Keet and Searle, see ‘Rights of Gypsies and Travellers: Planning Permission for Caravan Sites’, www.yourrights.org.uk (accessed 17 December 2008); R. Home, ‘The planning system and the accommodation needs of Gypsies’, in Here to Stay: The Gypsies and Travellers of Britain, ed. C. Clark and M. Greenfield (Hatfield, 2006), pp. 90–107, p. 97.
103 Matras, ‘Romani Civil Rights’, pp. 60–63.
104 Crowe, History of the Gypsies, pp. 28–9.
105 Kenrick, The Romani World, pp. 54.
106 See for example I. Chorianopoulos et al., ‘Residential Segregation and the EU Social Exclusion Discourse: Greek Roma and the Participatory Governance Lock in’, Antipode (2014, forthcoming).
107 Kenrick, The Romani World, pp. 45–6.
108 M. Bordigoni, ‘Sara aux Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer: métaphore de la présence gitane dans le “monde des gadjé”’, Etudes Tsiganes, XX/4 (2004), pp. 25 and 31; P. Williams, ‘Le miracle et la nécessité: à propos du développement du pentecôtisme chez les Tsiganes’, Archives de sciences sociales des religions, LXXIII/1 (1991), pp. 81 and 98.
109 C. le Cossec, ‘“Phénomène pentecôtiste” ou réveil réligieux?’, Etudes Tsiganes, 1 (1985), pp. 19–21.
110 M. Slavkova, ‘Evangelical Gypsies in Bulgaria: Way of Life and Performance of Identity’, Romani Studies, XVII/2 (2007), pp. 205–46.
111 Stonewall, Profiles of Prejudice (MORI UK opinion poll service, 2005), p. 1.
Afterword
1 ‘Underclass Gypsies: An Historical Approach on Categorisation and Exclusion in France in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries’, in The Gypsy Menace: Populism and the New Anti-Gypsy Politics, ed. M. Stewart (London, 2012), pp. 95–114.
2 Ibid.
3 I. Lacková, A False Dawn: My Life as a Gypsy Woman in Slovakia (Hatfield, 1999).
FURTHER READING
Abreu, L., ‘Beggars, Vagrants and R
omanies: Repression and Persecution in Portuguese Society (14th–18th Centuries)’, www.ep.liu.se/ej/hygiea (accessed 14 October 2012)
Abulafia, D., ‘The Coming of the Gypsies: Cities, Princes, Nomads’, in Power and Persuasion. Essays on the Art of State Building in Honour of W. P. Blockmans, ed. P.C.M. Hoppenbrouwers, A. Janse and R. Stein (Turnhout, 2011), pp. 325–42
Acton, T., Gypsy Politics and Social Change. The Development of Ethnic Ideology and Pressure Politics among British Gypsies from Victorian Reformism to Romani Nationalism (Oxford, 1974)
Asséo, H., ‘Des hommes à part les Bohémiens en forêt XVIIIe siècle: Forêt, villageois et marginaux, XVIe–XXe siècle’, in Forêt, Villageois et marginaux, ed. A. Corvol (Paris, 1990), pp. 30–35
Bancroft, A., Roma and Gypsy-Travellers in Europe: Modernity, Race, Space, and Exclusion (Aldershot, 2005)
Barany, Z., The Eastern European Gypsies: Regime Change, Marginality and Ethno-politics (Cambridge, 2002)
Beier, A. L., Masterless Men: The Vagrancy Problem in England, 1560–1640 (London, 1987)
Belton, B., Questioning Gypsy Identity: Ethnic Narratives in Britain and America (Walnut Creek, California and Oxford, 2005)
Berlière, J-M., ‘La république et les nomades (1880–1914)’, Etudes Tsiganes (2004), pp. 18–57
Bernadac, C., L’Holocauste oublié (Paris, 1979)
Boes, M., ‘Unwanted Travellers? The Tightening of City Borders in Early Modern Germany’, in Borders and Travellers in Early Modern Europe, ed. T. Betteridge (Aldershot, 2007)
Boswell, S. G., The Book of Boswell: The Autobiography of a Gypsy, ed. J. Seymour (London, 1970)
Burleigh, M. and W. Wipperman, The Racial State: Germany, 1939–45 (Cambridge, 1991)
Clark, C. and M. Greenfield, eds, Here to Stay. The Gypsies and Travellers of Britain (Hatfield, 2006)
Crowe, D., A History of the Gypsies of Eastern Europe and Russia (Houndmills, 2006)
Crowe, D. and J. Kolsti, eds, The Gypsies of Eastern Europe (New York and London, 1992)
Donovan, B., ‘Changing Perceptions of Social Deviance: Gypsies in Early Modern Portugal and Brazil’, Journal of Social History, XXVI/1 (1992), pp. 33–53