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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Over the extended period of writing this book I have benefited from the rich intellectual atmosphere of Birkbeck and the generous support of many colleagues: Fred Anscombe, John Arnold, Ludivine Broch, David Feldman, Vanessa King, Aphrodite Papayianni, Pam Pilbeam, Jessica Reinisch and Julian Swann. Tom Johnson presented me with the fantastic Tudor document out of the blue. A school research grant paid for my able team of research assistants, whose languages made accessible a wealth of new archival: Dorina Reichhold for the German material; St John O Donnabhain’s research, translation and work drafting and talking through the French material went far beyond the call of duty and funds; Martyn Weeds led the Bulgaria research and his initial writing allowed me to make sense of unfamiliar territory. In Bulgaria thanks also to Veronica Dimitrova, Nevena Germanova, the intellectual generosity of Plamen Makariev (Sofia University), Ilona Tomova (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences), Emil Buzov and Vassil Chaprazov. Other academics who have written in this small but thankfully growing field of research generously shared their material with me: David Abulafia; Maria Boes; Richard Pym.
Particular thanks to comrades Mike Berlin and Ben Rogaly for ongoing friendship, academic conversations and support within and outside the academy. The writing of this book was both delayed and enriched through my repeated trips to Dale Farm: Elby, Teresa, Michelle and John, Michelle, Patrick and family and Richard Sheridan have remained close to my heart throughout the writing of this book. Many thanks to Will and the Liberton household for hospitality in Edinburgh, Ludo in Leeds, and to all my fellow co-op members, especially Hayley and my walk fellowes at No. 4. Special mention must go to the unfailing presence of The Ginger Shadow, and the blithe interruptions of Jack and Rosa. And finally, for walking alongside me through the darkness (and the map), thanks to the sweet dreamer in my life.
The map on page 10 is courtesy of the University of Texas Libraries, The University of Texas, Austin.
INDEX
Alsace-Lorraine 70, 121, 132, 136, 143, 151, 157, 165
Argentina 130
Atsingani/Atsinganos translation 22–4
Austria 79–80, 100, 155, 163, 172, 173
army recruitment (1700s) 155
banishment of Gypsies, call for (1700s) 79–80
‘civilizing’ reforms (1700s) 100–103, 104, 147
concentration and labour camps 172, 173
International Gypsy Central Bureau 163
Balkans
anthropometric surveys 17
DNA evidence of migration 20–21
emigration to Americas 130–31
Law for Gypsies in Rumelia 34–5
mass migration and political instability (1800s) 130
nationalist politics, rise in (1990s) 224
Ottoman domination and tax registers 27–9, 30–33, 61, 62, 95, 125–6
religious distinctions 34, 126
seasonal nomadism 62, 121–2
see also Eastern Bloc countries, post-war; individual countries
Belgium 152, 176
Black Death 24, 52
Bohemians 11, 69, 119, 131, 141–2
Bosnia 28, 61, 130, 226
Boswell, Gordon 120, 148, 155
Brazil 54, 88–91, 92–3
Britain
Aliens Act (1905) 154
behaviour, focus on (1800s) 140–141
Blackpool, South Shore 120
Caravan Sites Act (1968) 209
Children’s Act (1908) 148–9
colonizatio
n practices 91–2
Commons Act (1899) 141
Criminal Justice Act (1994) 226–7
death penalty (1500s) 55–6
educational opportunities 148–50, 215, 216–17
First World War, effects of 155, 156–7
Gypsy Council (1966) 212, 216
Housing of the Working Classes Act (1885) 141
Irish Travellers 200, 203, 212
judicial system, working within (1600s) 84–6
legislation against Gypsies 84–6, 141–3, 148, 156, 193, 202, 209, 212, 226–7
local authority sites, lack of security tenure 218–19, 227, 228
local council evictions and zero tolerance policies 203, 209, 212, 218
local laws, exemption from (1500s) 49–52
modernization of nomadic lifestyles 201
Moveable Dwellings Bills (1880s to 1930s) 142–3, 148
‘New Traveller’ culture 226–7
occupational and economic changes (1960s) 200–201
political activity 210–11, 212
post-war legislation 193–4, 202
Private Acts and removal of common land 141
Race Relations Acts (1960s) 212
reaction to arrival of Gypsies (1500s) 49–52
Roma immigration from Eastern
Bloc countries 225, 226
settlements in cities and towns (nineteenth century) 119–20
Town and Country Planning Act (1947) 193, 202
vagabonds and Gypsies, perceived links between 55–6
vagrant poor, dealing with 52–3, 54, 83–4, 92
World Romani Congress 212, 213
Bulgaria
black-market activities 220–21, 224–5
close association with specific regions (1800s) 122–4
Democratic Union of Gypsies 228
educational opportunities 147–8, 159, 207, 216
First World War, effects of 159
land restitution programmes (1990s) 222
mill workers (1800s) 122
Muslim Gypsies, exclusion of 199
Muslim Gypsies, renaming of 219, 220
nationalist movement, growth of 129–30, 176–7
Nazi engagement, resistance to 177–8
post-war Bulgarization policy 198–9, 219–20
post-war land collectivization and farm cooperatives 196–7
post-war support for Roma 195–6, 203–4
religious and language distinctions (1800s) 122–3
Roma genetic heritage 19–20, 28, 31
Second World War and discriminatory decrees 177–8
sedentarization policies (1950s) 205–7
slave trade abolition 129
socialist regime collapse 222–4
tanzimat period (1800s) 128–9
Byzantine Empire 22–4, 25–6, 27, 29
Colson, Félix 126
Croatia 24, 174, 178–9
Czechoslovakia
Bill of Rights for National Minorities 158–9
dispersal and settlement policies (1965) 207
educational provisions 159, 208
identity cards 162
post-1989 violence 224
post-war relocation strategy 196
post-war Roma population study 195
post-war sedentarization policies 198
Roma Civic Initiative 228
sterilization decree (1972) 207–8
Diderot, Denis, Encyclopédie 98
Dillmann, Arthur, Zigeunerbuch (Gypsy Book) 153–4, 155
Dodds, Norman 210–11
Eastern Bloc countries, post-war 194–5
Berlin Wall, dismantling of 221–5
formal education problems 204, 205, 207, 216
political activity 211
Roma’s lack of recognition as national minority 195
sedentarization policies 196–8, 203–6
targeted housing schemes, impact of 205
see also Balkans; individual countries
Egyptians, Gypsies known as 11, 12, 25, 26–7, 55–6, 59, 60, 69, 83–4
Enlightenment, effects of 14–15, 97–8, 125–7
legislative reforms 100–102
nature and nurture distinction (Grellmann) 99–100
racial attitudes 98, 103–4
scholarly publications 98–100, 101, 103
separate cultural identity, denial of 100–102, 104–9
slavery reform 126–9
vagrant poor, dealing with 103
Europe
arrival of Gypsies in 37–40
close association with specific countries and regions 82–3
Cold War, effects of 188–9
colonization, effects on treatment of outsiders 46, 73, 90–91
colonization and transportation practices 87–92
cultural involvement (1800s) 117–19
eastern states, accession to EU 189
economic role (1800s) 115–16
educational initiatives 146–50, 214–17
exclusion of specific groups from cities (1500s) 47–9
First World War, effects of 155–9
galley crews, prisoners as (1600s) 71–2
Gypsy hunts (1600s) 72–3
‘Gypsy Power’ movements (1960s) 210
industrialization effects 115–24
letters of penance and enforced pilgrimage (1400s) 42–4, 50, 68
local laws, exemption from (1500s) 50–52
local state systems, integration within (1600s) 83
nation state as dominant political ideology 125–6, 133–41
nation states, emergence of, and exercise of power 38, 39, 49–50, 66–7, 71, 73, 87
policing and surveillance technologies 151–5, 162–3
political activity 210–12
post-war devastation and reconstruction 187–8
post-war marginalization and discrimination 199–200
post-war non-racial legislation and ‘true’ Gypsies 201–2
post-war policies, problems with 208
Reformation, effects of 38, 45–6, 53, 56
Roma immigration from Eastern
Bloc countries 225–8
Roma human rights activists 228–9
Roma and Pentecostalism 229–30
vagabonds and Gypsies, perceived links between (1500s) 55–6
vagrant poor, dealing with 52–5, 83–4
witchcraft trials 48–9
see also individual countries
Foucault, Michel, Discipline and Punish 76–7, 79
France
anthropometric data 152–3, 162, 174, 208–9, 210
arrival of Gypsies 39, 40, 44–5
Bohemians 11, 69–70, 119, 131, 141–2
circulation cards and booklets (1960s) 208–9
civil war involvement 61
close association with specific regions 82, 116–17
colonization and transportation practices 92
Communauté Mondiale Gitane 211
Dreyfus affair 151
economic benefits and freedom of trade (1800s) 116, 121
edict against Bohemians or Egyptians (1682) 69–70
equality principle 152, 176, 208–9, 210
Études Tsiganes journal 211
expulsion order, lack of enforcement 60, 110
First World War, and internee camps 157–8
forest regions, association with 70
Franco–Prussian War, effects of 121
Gypsies mixing with wider society, evidence of (1600s) 80–81
Gypsies as public danger, perception of (1800s) 143–4
Inter-Ministerial Commission on Peoples of Nomadic Origin (1948) 211
internment camps 175–6
labour power of prisoners, use of (1600s) 71–2
legislation against Gypsies 69–70, 80–81, 131–3, 141–4, 151–3, 162
local community involvement (1800s) 119
migrant workforce, need for (1500s) 69
nationalism and responsibility to society (1800
s) 140
nationality law (1849) and deportation of aliens 131–3
nomades, identification of 152, 157, 174–5, 176, 193, 208, 209–10
police powers, consolidation of (1800s) 143
policing/surveillance technologies 151–3, 162, 174–5, 193
post-war internment 193
resistance involvement (Second World War) 176
Roma as illegal immigrants (2012) 231–2
Roma, immigration of Yugoslavian 200
Roma and Pentecostalism 229
Second World War, effects of 174–5
settlements 119, 120–121
spying charges (1800s) 132
stopping-places, problems over (1960s) 208–9, 210
‘Tiger brigades’ 151–2
trades, association with particular 130
vagrants and travellers, dealing with 141–2, 143–4, 151–3
Waldeck-Rousseau law (1885) 143
Wars of Religion, effects of 69
Germany and German states
alms to accredited travellers (1400s) 43, 45, 55
arrival of Gypsies 40–41, 45, 46–7
as camp-followers and raiders (wartime) 73–8
Bavaria, policing and surveillance technologies 140, 151, 153–4, 164–5, 166
concentration camps 169, 170, 172–3, 176, 182, 183, 184
criminalization of itinerants (1800s) 138–40
Decree for the Fight against the Gypsy Plague (1938) 167, 169, 170, 171–2
educational opportunities 150, 214–16
exclusion of specific groups from cities (1500s) 47–8
false passports, use of (1500s) 68
First World War, effects of 163–4
freedom of residence rights 166
Gypsies as foreigners, perception of 74–5, 79, 136–7, 138–40, 153–4, 166–7
Gypsies mixing with wider society, evidence of (1600s) 80
Gypsy hunts (1600s) 72
Hesse 135, 154, 164, 192
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute 169
labour camps 166, 170, 171–3, 182
labour power of prisoners, use of (1600s) 72
Landfahrer label 202–3
legislation against Gypsies 65, 68–9, 74–80, 138–40, 151, 153–5
local and central government 134–5, 155, 164, 165, 170–71
migration controls, abolition of (1867) 136
Munich 48, 153–5, 162–3, 165, 166, 169, 232
National Centre for the Fight against the Gypsy Menace 169
nationalism, modernization and intercultural exchange 133–40
Nazi crimes, call for recognition of 213, 214