Spaatz, Carl, 168
Space Age, 44, 298
Space Chronicles (Tyson), 135
space exploration and travel: ARPA and human spaceflight, 160–61; bilateral agreement on demilitarization of space, 251–52; boundary between Earth’s atmosphere and space, 225; capitalism as advantage in, 171; chimpanzees in space, 208, 213–14, 314, 326; Cold War in space, 340; cultural impact of, 185, 328–29; dogs in space, 136–38, 202, 223; first American in space, 219, 227–28; first American to orbit the earth, 306; 320–24; first man in space, 222, 225–29; first space vehicle to contact a neighboring planet, 348; “freedom of space,” 187; Hubble and, 5; international law and, 152; JFK and America’s superiority in, 178, 188, 197, 226, 229, 233–34, 242, 244, 249, 318, 353, 354, 363, 389–93, 432–33, 438, 455; JFK and banning nuclear weapons in space, 422; JFK and space as the “new ocean,” xviii, 326, 370, 392, 455; JFK’s evolution in, 386; JFK’s pledge to land a man on the moon, xii, xiii, xvi, xix, xxv, 246, 247, 255, 258, 262, 290, 364, 378, 421, 443, 444, 449, 459–60; manned spaceflights, 160, 181, 185, 187, 219–21, 223–24, 226, 242, 248–49, 259, 290, 323, 439, 450; militarization of, 128, 164, 167, 170–71, 178, 219, 251–52, 253, 260, 316–17, 337, 338, 339, 340, 342, 348, 350, 351, 402, 406, 409; as a “new frontier,” 5, 181–82, 195, 220, 335, 432, 435; “open skies” treaties and, 315; peaceful uses of space, 424; public interest in, 5, 181, 182, 184–85; USAF “Space Plan” and, 253; U.S. civilian-run agency (NASA) created, 154, 163, 165, 167; U.S. first to send probe to Venus, 395–96; U.S. fragmented programs, 144, 145, 149; U.S. lagging position, 1950s, 138–52; U.S. launch sites, 210–11; U.S.-Soviet collaboration and, 409, 417–18, 422–24, 425; U.S. unification over, 241, 242; von Braun’s four goals for, 235; von Braun’s moon and Mars voyage vision, 13, 81, 88, 107, 115, 125, 127, 194, 235–36; Wiesner Report and, 212–13, 214. See also moon; moonshot; NASA; specific programs
space gap, 187, 201
space medicine, 434–35, 512n424
space race, xii, xix–xxi, xxiv, 81, 93, 101, 115, 127, 177, 178, 195, 202, 203, 343; acceleration of, 157; acceleration of Mercury program and, 312–13; Apollo program (moonshot) and, 247, 249, 422–25; as challenge to American way of life, 220; Cold War and, 249, 278; Eisenhower’s approach, 139, 155, 165–66, 170–71, 201; false premise that Soviets were winning, 407; federal contractors and, 171, 198; gloomy predictions about U.S. position in, 314–15; JFK and, 139, 155, 165–66, 197, 201, 205, 211–12, 221, 227, 244, 247, 318, 432–33; JFK and beating Soviets to the moon, 389–93, 413–14, 415; JFK’s moonshot pledge and, 256–57, 279–80, 314, 328; JFK’s Rice University speech and, 363; JFK’s successes, 348; Khrushchev’s boasts about, 316–17; Khrushchev’s unfulfilled moon missions, 263; LBJ and, 148–49, 160; Pioneer 1 failure and, 169; satellite launches and, 171; Soviet moon plans, 262–63, 408, 419, 425–26, 427–28, 452; Soviets ahead in manned space program, 222, 226, 227, 228–29, 242, 308, 309, 310, 314, 382; Soviets aiming for a space station, 388; Soviet secrecy vs. U.S. “open policy,” 290; Soviets’ financial limitations, 415; Soviets put first woman in space, 378; Sputnik “spooked” U.S. into, 135–37; U.S. science education, and, 160, 270; U.S.-Soviet collaboration and, 417–18; U.S. superiority, 234, 242, 325, 395–96, 399–400, 438, 450–51; U.S. winning global prestige, 339
Space Review, 433
space shuttle: Space Shuttle flight STS-7, 379; von Braun’s Huntsville team and, 456
Space Weapons and US Strategy (Stares), 342
Speer, Albert, 48
Sperry Gyroscope Company, 215
Sperry Rand, 437
Spivak, Alin, 369
Sputnik, xii, xvii, xix, xxi, 124, 128–37, 148, 225, 288, 413; Cold War and, 131–32; disintegration of, 157; Eisenhower and, 132–36, 138, 140, 141–42, 319; JFK and, 139–40, 256; JFK and “Sputnik diplomacy,” 149; Mead-Metraux survey on, 131; Sputnik 2, 136–37, 138, 139, 145, 156, 157; Sputnik 7, 431; Sputnik 8, 431; Sputnik 19, 395; as tipping point to create a unified American space program, 134; U.S. detects orbit of, 128–29; U.S. political response to, 132–35; U.S. public response, 129, 131, 132, 140, 181; as world-changing, 152
Stafford, Thomas, 372, 375
Stalin, Joseph, 73–74, 75, 85, 102, 113, 120; as Time’s Man of the Year, 86
Stanford University, 36–37
Stanton, Frank, 234
Stares, Paul, 342, 409
Starfish Prime (U.S. nuclear rocket test), 346–48, 351
Stengel, Casey, 322
Stennis, John, 260
Stevenson, Adlai, 110, 111, 117–18, 135, 176, 192, 194, 307, 308, 310, 316
St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Mercury Seven as “knights in space,” xxii
Storms, Harrison, 427
Strategic Air Command, 110
Strughold, Hubertus, 81, 434
Sulzberger, Cyrus, 325
“Survival” (Hershey), 55, 56
Sylvester, Arthur, 252; “Space Plan,” 253
Symington, Stuart, 115, 138, 192, 194, 253
Taft, Robert, 110, 148
Talmadge, Herman, 400
Tang, xxii, 400
Taylor, Bob, 400
Taylor, Maxwell, 156
Teague, Olin, 438, 440
technology: advances because of manned space flight, 395, 400, 401–2; computers, 119, 263; computer science education, 399; first transistor radio, 119; JFK and, xxi, 399–400; Mercury program and, 185; microchip, xviii, 172, 395; moonshot and, xix, xxii, 249, 260, 263, 266, 392; NASA and medical advances, 433–35, 512n434; NASA fueling of, 348–49; silicon transistor, xvii–xviii, 119
television: civil rights movement on, 236, 269; Echo 1 and satellite communications, 202; Eisenhower and, 285; Glenn’s fame and, 174; JFK’s use of, 117, 126, 284, 285–88, 290, 330; JFK watching NASA missions, 239, 239, 294, 344, 381; as magic machine, 344; Murrow on, 266; NASA helped by CBS special, 177; NASA missions televised, xiii, xxiv–xxv, 237, 239, 240, 259, 289, 291, 293–94, 321–22, 344, 381, 403, 442, 448, 450, 458–59; satellite television, 395; Shepard golfing on the moon, 442; space-based shows, 329; Sputnik 2 and, 137; Vanguard TV-3 failure seen on, 147; von Braun on, 142, 295; Vostok 2 and, 308
Teller, Edward, 138, 161
Telstar satellites, 202, 349, 381
Tereshkova, Valentina, 378, 428
Texas Instruments, 172, 437
Texas Monthly, 365
They Were Expendable (Bulkeley), 55–56
Thirring, Hans, 271
This Flying Game (Eaker), 82
Thom, Lenny and Kate, 59
Thomas, Albert, 221, 284, 301, 302, 303, 360, 362, 427, 437, 438; testimonial dinner, JFK speaking at, 437–38
Thompson, Milt, 151
Thompson, Neal, 442
Thor rockets, 166, 169, 185, 346
Time magazine, 163; age of space exploration and, 200; JFK and von Braun meet at, 125–27, 235, 431; JFK cover, “Man Out Front,” 145; Khrushchev as Man of the Year, 137, 152; Sidey on JFK, 191, 227, 229, 230, 417; Stalin as Man of the Year, 86; von Braun and, 143
Titan rockets, 166, 318, 413
Titov, Gherman, 308–11, 329, 343
Titov, Tamara, 343
Toftoy, Holger, 73, 75–76, 77, 104; “Mr. Missile,” 73
Topeka, KS, JFK “Science and Security” speech, 139–40, 145
Trudeau, Gilbert, 165
True Compass (E. Kennedy), 59
Truman, Harry, xix, 75, 77, 84–85, 99, 109, 111, 116, 135, 253; Berlin airlift and, 99, 101; Cold War and, 216; commercial air travel and, 98–99; JFK criticism of, 104; National Security Council Paper Number 68 and, 104; Soviets’ nuclear power and, 101–2, 103; Webb and, 215–16
TRW Inc., 200; Space Technology Laboratories, 169, 266
Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin, 3, 11–12, 121
Turner, Frederick Jackson, xviii
Twining, Nathan F., 168
Tyler, John, 285
Tyson, Neil deGrasse, 135, 363
U-2 spy plane, 121, 152, 153, 167, 187, 197–98, 383
United
Nations, 82, 83, 252, 311, 350; Disarmament Commission, 343; JFK speech on U.S.-Soviet cooperation in space, 422–24, 428; peaceful uses of space and, 316
United States, xxv, 127; American exceptionalism, xviii, xxv, 115, 178, 231, 363; Apollo 11 moon landing, effect of, 270, 459; first televised presidential debates, 203–4, 205; “frontier thesis” and, xviii; German technology and scientists in, 75–77, 79–82; hunger for another “moonshot,” xxv; impossible achievements of, 230–31; infrastructure and public works projects, xix, 251, 298; as inspirational in people’s lives, 272; intervention in World War II and, 37; isolationists in, 29, 30, 31; “Kennedy effect,” 451; media and the presidency, 285–88; moonshot challenge as ideal for, xix; need for patriotic heroes, 272; optimism of the times, early 20th century, 4; patriotism following Glenn’s mission, 324; popular culture boom about space following Glenn’s mission, 328–29, 331; postwar global dominance, 100–101; postwar weapons programs, 75–77, 79–82, 93–122; public response to Shepard’s televised flight, 240–42; Red Scare, 85, 86, 103; as “the Republic of Technology,” 295; Soviet-U.S. weather satellite system, 339, 343; space and pioneer spirit, as the next frontier, xxii, 5, 23, 181, 182, 363, 407; space craze in, 22–23, 181, 324; space exploration as unifying, 241, 242, 443–44; space program and (see NASA); televised satellite and manned space launches, xiii, xxiv–xxv, 237, 239, 240, 259, 289, 291, 293–94, 321–22, 344, 381, 403, 442, 448, 450, 458–59; televised tour of the White House and JFK’s popularity, 336–37; UFO craze, 329; World War II and enlistments in the armed forces, 42; World War II and industrial mobilization, 42. See also moonshot; nuclear weapons; space race
University of Florida, Gainesville, JFK speech at, 135–36, 138
U.S. Air Army Forces (AAF), 54, 95
U.S. Air Force (USAF), 87, 95; Air Research and Development Command, 160; antimissile defense and, 251; Apollo and, 268; Atlas and other rockets, 122, 198, 219, 313; Dyna-Soar reusable rocket, 252, 253, 338, 340; JFK honors pilots with Collier Trophy, 349; MISS program and, 160–63, 173; moonshot and, 243; NASA and, 194, 253, 337–38; satellites and, 211, 243, 338; Space Launching System (SLS), 211; “Space Plan,” 253; space probe and launch initiatives, 338; X-15 program, 149–50, 252, 277, 349
U.S. Air Force Academy, 350
U.S. Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine, 339
U.S. Army: Committee on Guided Missiles, 98; Goddard’s bazooka and, 8; missile program, 98, 114, 211; NASA and, 337; Ordnance Rocket Center at Huntsville, 107; satellite development and, 129, 142; Upper Atmosphere Research Panel, 97; von Braun and, 121. See also Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA)
U.S. Army Ordnance Corps, 71, 79, 98
U.S. Congress: Cooper address to, 405; Glenn address to, 326; House Committee on Science and Astronautics, 378, 406; House Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration, 159, 169–70, 178, 315; House Subcommittee on Independent Offices Appropriations, 302; infrastructure and, 250; JFK as Congressman, 93–94, 99–100, 102–3, 104; JFK as Senator, 92, 111, 112–13; JFK’s allies in, 265; JFK’s expanded space expenditure bill, 302; JFK’s moonshot speech, “Urgent National Needs,” May 25, 1961, xi, xiii, xvi, xvii, 246, 247, 255–58, 421; Johnson hearings on U.S. satellite and missile programs, 135, 140; McClellan Committee hearings, 285; military budget and, 94–95, 104; military space program spending, 351; moonshot funding, 270; NASA creation and, 163–64; NASA funding and, 178, 267, 369, 375, 386, 387, 396, 397–98, 405–6, 414–15, 420, 426–27, 428, 449; nuclear test ban treaty ratified, 419; Senate Space Committee, 204, 216, 265, 414; Senate space militarization debates, 351; Senate Special Committee on Atomic Energy, 100; Senate Special Committee on Space and Astronautics, 148–49, 159, 204, 216; space exploration and travel, 157; Webb-McNamara Report and, 255
U.S. Department of Defense (DOD), 450; criticism of moonshot, 426, 428–29; decision for a lunar landing and, 243; Gilpatric’s Wilton speech and, 342; NASA and, 342, 426, 428–29; as National Military Establishment, 95
U.S. Information Agency (USIA), 268, 269
U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, 96
U.S. Navy: JFK earns aviator wings, 52, 53; JFK honored for bravery, 53; JFK in, 40, 41–43, 45; JFK in, as PT boat skipper, 45–48, 47, 56, 272; JFK medical discharge, 51; JFK piloting PT boats in South Florida, 52; Joseph Kennedy, Jr., in, 40, 42; NASA and, 337; patrol torpedo (PT) boats and Ivy League skippers, 45–46, 55–56; Project Vanguard and, 122, 142, 144, 145, 149, 155, 156, 157; Sealab, 346; Viking rocket, 96–97
U.S. News and World Report, Thirring interview, 271
USS Champlain, 240
USS Decatur, 313
USS George Washington, 211
USS Intrepid, 345
USS Kearsarge, 381
USS Noa, 324
USS Randolph, 294, 324
U.S. State Department, 416
V-1 “buzz bomb,” xviii, 53–54, 55, 61; U.S. copying of, 75–76
V-2 rockets: appearance and specs, 63, 65, civilian deaths and, 70, 71; deployment of, 61–67, 70–71; development of, 21, 35, 39, 43–45, 48, 49, 52–53, 54, 58, 60; fired at Paris and London, 62–64; last launch, 71; Soviet R-1 and, 74; tests in New Mexico, 81; U.S. capture of von Braun and technology, 73–74, 75–77, 79–82; U.S. plan to use for space exploration, 81–82
Valenti, Jack, 302
Van Allen, James, 348
Vandenberg Air Force Base, 210–11
Vanderhoef, Peter, 442
Vanguard rockets, 122, 142, 144, 145, 149, 155, 156, 157, 185; launch failure, 147, 155
Vantage Point, The (LBJ), 384
Venera 1, 395
Venus probe, 348, 397
Verne, Jules, 3–4, 5, 8, 10, 184
Vietnam War, 442, 459
Viking rocket, 96–97, 98
Vital Center, The (Schlesinger), 86
von Brauchitsch, Walther, 35, 36
von Braun, Magnus, 62, 72–73
von Braun, Maria, 445
von Braun, Wernher, xix, xxiv, 12–14, 142; Aggregat rockets, 26, 33, 35, 36; American dream and, 262; Apollo program and, 274, 276, 295, 313, 454, 459; as born-again Christian, 107; character and amorality of, 64, 66–67, 143–44; childhood, 12–13; code name for, 76; Collier’s series by, 114–15, 142, 181–82; cooperation with the Nazis, 26, 33–36, 38, 43, 60, 64, 66, 143–44, 456, 514n456; as director, Marshall Space Flight Center, 267, 295, 334, 355; education, 13, 25; Eisenhower and, 122, 123, 126, 169, 235; explanation for his Nazi association, 43, 50–51, 514n456; Explorer 1 satellite and, 149; on the failure of crash programs, 44; fear of Soviet long-range missile supremacy, 128; first public speech in America, 88; Franklin anecdote and, 201–2; generational change and, 127; on Glenn’s historic flight, 325; Goddard and, 77; ICBMs and, 53–54, 58, 78, 88, 94; JFK and, 125, 142–43, 210, 235–36, 262, 295, 334, 353–54, 355, 360, 402, 431–32; JFK assassination, effect of, 444–45, 456; JFK’s moonshot goal and, 262; JFK’s moonshot speech and, 261; Jupiter-C rocket and, 140; LBJ and, 234; leaking false premise that Soviets were winning, 407; legacy of, 456; letter to Jackie Kennedy and reply, 454–55; media savvy and self-promotion, 114–15, 125, 142–43, 163, 177, 295, 353–54; Mercury program and, 185; military control of space and, 167; moon and Mars voyage vision, 13, 81, 88, 107, 115, 125, 127, 194, 235–36; NASA and, 194, 407 (see also Huntsville, AL); Oberth and, 13–14, 25–26, 192; obsession with the moon and stars, 13; at Peenemünde, 34–35, 39, 43, 44; Popular Science column by, 399; radio control of manned and unmanned spacecraft and, 88; recalling Kennedy’s visit to Huntsville, xxii–xxiii; Redstone rockets and, 114, 122, 149, 198; rockets for space travel and, 35; satellite launch and, 141, 142, 155–56; Saturn rockets and, 169, 187, 194, 229, 267, 273, 276–77, 295, 296, 313, 353, 355, 402, 418, 445, 449, 454; space program goals and, 235; Sputnik launch, reaction to, 136; surrender to the U.S. Army, 71–74, 76–77; team and, at Fort Bliss, 79–81, 88, 98, 104; team and, in Huntsville, AL, 104–5, 107, 116, 140, 141, 149, 155–56, 169, 187, 295; U.S. Army and, 121; U.S. Army Ordnance Corps contract, 79; U.S. rocket pr
ogram and, 74, 76–77; V-2 rocket and, 39, 43–45, 54, 58, 60, 62, 64, 66; war crimes and, 50–51, 74, 98; whitewashing of, 76, 80; Wiesner Report and, 213; World War II and, 26
von Fremd, Charles, 289
von Kármán, Theodore, 340
Vonnegut, Kurt, 4
Vostok missions (Soviet), 220, 223, 225, 226, 308–10, 312, 315, 329, 378, 382
Waging Peace (Eisenhower), 114
Walcott, Charles D., 5–6
Walker, Edward Craven, 329
Walker, Joseph A., 150, 162, 277, 349
Wallace, Henry, 86, 195
Wallops Island, VA, 154, 168, 211
Wapakoneta, OH, xiii, 14, 150–51
War of the Worlds, The (Wells), 7
Washington Post: JFK profile, 105–6; JFK’s moonshot pledge, May 25, 1961 and, 259; space program review, 406
Watts, Stephen, 242
Webb, James E., xix, xxiv, 215–17, 219–21, 227, 234, 236, 250–51, 261, 265, 284, 290, 309, 349, 360, 364; aerospace contracts and, 297–98; Apollo 1 disaster and, 451; Apollo program and, 209, 267–68, 276, 445; death of, 452; decision for a lunar landing and, 243; Gemini astronauts and, 373–74; history’s evaluation of, 452; Holmes and, 313, 387; Houston chosen for Apollo headquarters and, 302–4; JFK and, 217, 218, 220–21, 297–98; JFK’s assassination and, 445; JFK’s last private meeting with, 428–29; JFK’s “leapfrog” and, 229–32; JFK’s moonshot pledge and, 449; JFK’s Nov. 21, 1962, meeting on NASA and the economy, 389–93; JFK’s taped conversations with, 350, 389–93, 420–21; joint Soviet moon mission idea and, 416, 419, 420, 428; LBJ and, 450, 452; LOR strategy and, 353, 354; NASA budget and, 397, 414–15, 427; NASA expenditures and, 388; NASA funding and, 414, 420; NASA reorganization and, 312; rejects women as astronauts, 378; words on Houston Space Center wall, 452
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