by The New Big Book of U S Presidents (2020) (retail) (epub)
As president, Washington was much less willing to use military force abroad. When the French Revolution led to a war between France and England in 1793, the president faced a number of diplomatic and domestic problems. The war also divided Washington’s cabinet again. This time, Washington refused the advice of both the pro-British Hamilton and the pro-French Jefferson. Instead, knowing the new nation was not prepared to fight, he insisted on neutrality. By the end of his second term, Washington had wearied of politics. To his disappointment, two opposing political parties had developed, centering on the philosophies of Hamilton and Jefferson. Although still very popular, Washington declined a third term, setting an important precedent. In his farewell address, he warned his countrymen about the dangers of political parties and again stressed the importance of neutrality in European affairs.
Washington returned to his beloved Mount Vernon but enjoyed only a short retirement. When he died of a throat infection in 1799, the entire nation mourned him for months.
Born: February 22, 1732
Died: December 14, 1799
Birthplace: Pope’s Creek, VA
V.P.: John Adams
First Lady: Martha Dandridge Custis
• The only president inaugurated in two cities: New York and Philadelphia
• Wore false teeth made from exotic materials
Slavery
By the 1790s, there were almost 3/4 of a million slaves in the United States. Although the northern states all outlawed slavery between 1777 and 1804, the South became increasingly dependent on slave labor. This dependence increased in 1793 when Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin. This machine simplified the cotton-picking process and saved a tremendous amount of work causing southern cotton production to soar.
Native Americans and Blacks in the Revolution
The Revolutionary War involved more than the British and the colonists. It drew in countless Native Americans and slaves as well. Both sides actively sought Indian alliances. Recognizing their immense stake in the outcome, Native American tribes like those in the Iroquois league abandoned neutrality and joined the struggle against the colonists. For blacks, the decision about which side to support was just as difficult. While some blacks sought their freedom by joining the British, nearly 5,000 black patriots, such as Crispus Attucks, bravely fought alongside white colonists.
Women in Revolutionary America
Although the American Revolution was a step forward for political democracy, colonial and revolutionary-era politics did not include women. Although most women did not press for political equality, the more male leaders talked about England’s oppressive power, the more American women began to rethink their own domestic situations. The War for Independence encouraged women to write and speak about public events as they raised money for the army and taught their children about the new responsibilities of American citizenship. As a result, women developed new and important connections with public life during these years.
1744
1756–1763
The British victory in The Seven Years’ War decides the future of the North American Continent.
March 5, 1770
At the “Boston Massacre”, British soldiers kill five Americans.
1773
The Boston Tea Party ignites the American Revolution.
July 4, 1776
The Declaration of Independence is signed.
1783
The peace treaty with England is signed in Paris, ending The War for Independence.
May 25, 1787
The Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia creates the federal government.
1791
The U.S. capital moves from New York City to a site on the Potomac River between Maryland and Virginia.
1791
The Bill of Rights is ratified.
1792
In England, Mary Wollstonecraft publishes A Vindication of the Rights of Women, which advances the cause of women’s rights.
1797
John Adams
Federalist, 1797–1801
Astatesman who played a central role during the Revolution and its aftermath, John Adams had a long and distinguished public career. As president, Adams weathered a bitter political storm springing from an undeclared war with France.
A Harvard-educated lawyer, Adams became one of the first leaders in the American independence movement. He was a tireless member of both Continental Congresses, where he helped draft the Declaration of Independence and proposed the pattern for the American flag. During the Revolutionary War, he served as a diplomat in Europe and helped negotiate the treaty that ended the fighting. After serving as ambassador to England, he became the country’s first vice president in 1789. With Washington’s retirement, the 1796 presidential election quickly narrowed to a contest between Adams and Thomas Jefferson. Adams narrowly defeated Jefferson, who became vice president. It was the only time in history that the president and vice president were from different political parties.
As soon as Adams took office, he confronted a serious crisis with France. The “XYZ affair,” a diplomatic dispute that came to a head after France attempted to bribe American diplomats, outraged the American public. Shouting “Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute,” many demanded war with France. Despite the battles already taking place on the high seas, Adams—aware of America’s military weaknesses—resisted declaring war on France. He did lash out at “enemies” at home, however, by supporting the 1798 Alien and Sedition Acts. Designed to quiet criticism of his administration’s policies, these laws generated a firestorm of protest. In 1799, Adams dramatically reopened negotiations with France. By year’s end, he had secured an agreement ending the conflict (called the Quasi-War) and defusing the political crisis at home.
Although Adams was widely popular during the Quasi-War, he lost much of his popularity during the last year of his presidency. Denied a second term, he enjoyed a peaceful retirement in Massachusetts and renewed his friendship and correspondence with Thomas Jefferson. He died at the age of 91 on the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence.
The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions
To protest the Alien and Sedition Acts, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison wrote the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, which argued that the laws were unconstitutional. Jefferson and Madison even insisted that the states had the right to reject federal laws. This nullification argument would become much more important in the years before the Civil War.
Born: October 30, 1735
Died: July 4, 1826
Birthplace: Braintree, MA
V.P.: Thomas Jefferson
First Lady: Abigail Smith
• The first president to live in the White House
• As a lawyer in Boston, he successfully defended the British soldiers accused in the Boston Massacre
Abigail Adams (1744-1816)
A charming woman who matched her husband in wit and love of books, Abigail Adams was always disappointed in the lack of opportunities she had as a woman. In letters to her husband, she raised issues about women’s lack of power in society and in the family and asked him to recognize the sacrifices women made for the country during the Revolution.
1797
1797
The U.S.S. Constitution—“Old Ironsides”—is launched.
1799
Napoleon Bonaparte becomes the virtual ruler of France.
April 24, 1800
The Library of Congress is established.
THOMAS JEFFERSON
Democratic-Republican, 1801–1809
Political theorist, naturalist, architect, philosopher, and statesman, Thomas Jefferson possessed an inquiring mind and wide-ranging interests. As president, Jefferson greatly expanded the size of the United States but also tried to make the central government smaller and less involved in the lives of the people.
Growing up near the mountains of Virginia, Jefferson inherited both wealth and social standing from his parents. As the you
ngest member of the Continental Congress, Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence in 1776. In 1785, he succeeded Benjamin Franklin as American minister to France. Washington then made Jefferson secretary of state, but Jefferson resigned in 1793 because of his differences with Alexander Hamilton. As vice president under John Adams, he led the opposition to many of Adams’s policies. In the presidential election of 1800, Jefferson defeated Adams, and control of the government passed for the first time from one political party to another. Jefferson’s party and its vision would dominate American politics well into the 19th century.
As president, Jefferson hoped that America would become an open and equal society of independent farmers who needed few laws. He slashed military spending, cut the budget, and reduced the national debt. Despite his belief in small government, Jefferson used his power as chief executive to buy the Louisiana Territory from France in 1803. Riding the popularity he gained from the Louisiana Purchase, Jefferson easily won re-election in 1804. During his second term, Jefferson was increasingly preoccupied with keeping America out of European wars. While at war with each other, both England and France continued to interfere with American shipping. Basing his foreign policy on Washington’s principle of avoiding entangling alliances, Jefferson imposed an embargo in 1807, forbidding all American vessels from sailing for foreign ports. The embargo was ineffective and unpopular. Congress repealed the measure in March 1809, three days before Jefferson left office.
After his presidency, Jefferson lived at Monticello, the family home he began to build in 1770. During his later years, he pursued many projects, such as founding the University of Virginia. He died on July 4, 1826, just hours before the death of his great friend and rival John Adams.
Born: April 13, 1743
Died: July 4, 1826
Birthplace: Shadwell, VA
V.P.: Aaron Burr, George Clinton
First Lady: Martha Wayles Skelton
• Played the violin
• His library of approximately 6,000 books was the basis for the Library of Congress
Triangular Trade
Although lacking enough support to outlaw slavery altogether, Jefferson did manage to persuade Congress to ban the slave trade in 1808. Tens of thousands of slaves continued to be smuggled into the country. Before 1808, the slave traders had followed the same triangular route for almost two centuries. They carried rum from distilleries in New England to West Africa and traded it for slaves. The slaves, shackled in the holds of the ships, were taken to the West Indies, where they were traded for molasses. The molasses was taken to New England to make rum, completing the triangle.
The Lewis and Clark Expedition
The Louisiana Purchase instantly doubled the nation’s size. To explore the new lands, Jefferson dispatched an expedition led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. For nearly 2½ years, this intrepid band of explorers made its way across thousands of miles of unmapped terrain. One of the most important members of the team was a 16-year-old Shoshone Indian girl named Sacagawea. Her ability to communicate with other Native American tribes was crucial to the expedition’s success.
1809
1800
Noah Webster begins work on a comprehensive dictionary. He didn’t publish the complete dictionary, containing more than 70,000 words, until 1828.
1803
In Marbury v. Madison, the Supreme Court establishes the principle of judicial review, enabling it to decide whether an act of Congress is constitutional.
August 8, 1807
The Clermont, a steamboat engineered by Robert Fulton, makes its way up the Hudson River and begins carrying passengers and freight.
JAMES MADISON
Democratic-Republican, 1809–1817
Before he became president, James Madison made immense contributions both to political theory and to the founding of the American republic. As president, Madison led his country through a second war of independence against England.
Although often ill as a child, Madison’s health improved and he attended Princeton University (then called the College of New Jersey), where he studied history, government, and law. Just over five feet tall and barely 100 pounds, Madison worked tirelessly to draft and defend the Constitution and the more effective national government it created. Later, he helped frame the Bill of Rights and served as secretary of state in Jefferson’s administration. As Jefferson’s hand-picked successor, Madison easily won election in 1808 and re-election in 1812.
When he assumed office, Madison inherited the naval crisis with Great Britain, which was still forcing American seamen into service and seizing American cargo on the high seas. During the first 2 years of Madison’s presidency, a group of young congressmen—known as the “War Hawks”—demanded a more aggressive response to British attacks. Madison resisted these demands for more than a year but finally gave in to the pressure in June 1812 and asked Congress for a declaration of war. Despite the popular enthusiasm whipped up by the War Hawks, America was not prepared to fight. An American invasion of Canada failed miserably, and the British entered Washington in 1814, setting fire to the White House. Although the peace treaty that was finally signed in December 1814 left the issues that caused the conflict unresolved, a few notable naval and military victories convinced Americans that the war had been a success, resulting in an outpouring of nationalist feeling.
Following the two-term precedent established by Washington, Madison left office in 1816. He retired to Montpelier, his Virginia estate, and spent his remaining years as a respected voice on issues, such as slavery, that already threatened to shatter the new Union. He died in 1836, the last of the Founding Fathers.
Dolley Madison 1768-1849)
Known for her charm and intelligence, Dolley Madison was one of the country’s most extraordinary first ladies. During the War of 1812, she also proved she could be remarkably cool in a crisis. As the British approached Washington, Dolley packed up the Declaration of Independence, sending it to safety.
Born: March 16, 1751
Died: June 28, 1836
Birthplace: Port Conway, VA
V.P.: George Clinton, Elbridge Gerry
First Lady: Dolley Dandridge Payne Todd
• Stood 5’4” and weighed about 100 pounds
• Used the pseudonym “Publius”
Native American Relations
Throughout the early decades of the 19th century, the United States kept taking Native American land, either by conquest or deception. Treaties were made and then broken. Some Indian tribes, led by a Shawnee chief named Tecumseh, fought back. On November 7, 1811, in the Battle of Tippecanoe Creek, the U.S. Army led by William Henry Harrison defeated Tecumseh’s warriors. Overall, it proved very difficult to reconcile Native American rights with national expansion.
1809
April 25, 1814
British troops burn Washington, including the White House and the Capitol building, which is still under construction.
September 1814
British bombardment of Fort McHenry inspires Francis Scott Key to write The Star-Spangled Banner.
1814
Francis Cabot Lowell opens the first fully mechanized textile factory in Massachusetts, changing the focus of the northern economy from shipping to manufacturing.
1815
The Hartford Convention fails, destroying the Federalist party.
JAMES MONROE
Democratic-Republican, 1817–1825
The last leader of the revolutionary generation to be president, James Monroe governed during the “Era of Good Feelings.” Although Monroe followed popular nationalist policies, by the end of his second term ugly sectional divisions had appeared within the country.
Monroe dropped out of the College of William and Mary in 1776 to join the Continental Army. Following the war, he served in the Senate, as minister to France (where he helped negotiate the Louisiana Purchase), and as governor of Virginia. In 1811, President Madison appointed him secretary of state. His abilities and exp
erience made him the natural choice for president in 1816. With little opposition, he easily won re-election in 1820.
During Monroe’s administrations, the country grew at an amazing rate, and six states were added to the Union. This rapid growth, fueled by the development of roads and canals, reopened the explosive issue of slavery. Since 1789, politicians had tried to keep slavery safely beneath the surface of political life, and in 1819, there were an equal number of slave states and free states. That same year, Missouri applied for admission to the Union as a slave state, threatening to upset the delicate balance. After months of bitter debate between the North and South, Monroe signed the Missouri Compromise, which temporarily resolved the issue. Missouri gained admission as a slave state while Maine came in to the Union as a free state. In addition to maintaining sectional balance, the deal required that all other new states carved from the Louisiana Territory north of the southern boundary of Missouri were to be free states.
In foreign affairs, Monroe, with the help of his secretary of state, John Quincy Adams, fashioned a bold new policy. Responding to the possibility that Spain might try to regain her former Latin American colonies, Monroe warned Europe in 1823 against further colonization of the region and interference in its nations’ internal affairs. Although at the time the U.S. did not have the power to enforce the Monroe Doctrine, the policy has guided U.S. actions ever since.
After his second term was over, Monroe went back to his home in Virginia. He died while visiting his daughter in New York in 1831. Like John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, he died on the 4th of July.
Born: April 28, 1758