by The New Big Book of U S Presidents (2020) (retail) (epub)
Died: July 4, 1831
Birthplace: Westmoreland County, VA
V.P.: Daniel D. Tompkins
First Lady: Elizabeth Kortright
• Received all but one electoral vote in the election of 1820
• Left the White House in debt
American Literature
The most important writers of the early 19th century were James Fenimore Cooper and Washington Irving. Cooper wrote novels about the frontier, including The Last of the Mohicans. Irving’s famous short stories included “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” and “Rip Van Winkle.”
Native American Alphabet
Beginning in 1809, Cherokee silversmith and warrior Sequoyah started work on a written language for his tribe. By 1821, he had adapted letters from English, Greek, and Hebrew to create the first written Indian language in North America.
1825
1811–1819
The First section of the Cumberland Road, from Cumberland, Maryland, to Wheeling, in then–western Virginia, is built.
1820
American explorer Nathaniel B. Palmer, on a sailing expedition, first sights Antarctica.
1821
Emma Willard founds Troy Female Seminary, the first college-level school for women.
January 1824
Fur trappers find and cross a wide gap in the Rocky Mountains in present-day Wyoming. Called the South Pass, it was later used by thousands of settlers traveling the Oregon Trail.
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS
Democratic-Republican, 1825–1829
The career of John Quincy Adams, the son of the second president, in many ways paralleled his father’s. During John Quincy Adams’s presidency, he struggled with political changes—such as increased voter participation—that were ushering in a new era of American democracy.
As a child, Adams watched the Revolutionary War’s Battle of Bunker Hill from his family’s farm. Working as a secretary for his father in Europe, he became an accomplished diplomat himself. As secretary of state in the Monroe administration, Adams, making the most of America’s limited power, arranged with England for joint occupation of Oregon, acquired Florida from Spain, and formulated the Monroe Doctrine.
According to existing political tradition, Adams, as secretary of state, should have been Monroe’s natural successor. By the 1824 election, however, a new generation of politicians skilled in the techniques of mass politics had appeared, and there was heated competition for the presidency. When none of the four candidates received an electoral majority, the election, as in 1800, moved into the House of Representatives. There, Adams won the election with the support of Congressman Henry Clay, even though Andrew Jackson had more popular and electoral votes. (Adams then made Clay secretary of state, leading Jackson to call the deal a “corrupt bargain” to steal the election.)
As president, Adams called for a strong federal program of economic development. Unfortunately, his program of road and canal building, standardization of weights and measures, establishment of a national university, and government support for science and the arts quickly fell victim to sectional conflicts and political partisanship. Adams’s administration soon floundered, and for the rest of his term, politicians jockeyed for positions in the political realignment that was under way.
Adams’s greatest period of public service took place following his defeat in the 1828 election. From 1830 to his death in 1848, “Old Man Eloquent” served in the House of Representatives, where he fought for civil liberties and against slavery.
The American System
In Congress, Henry Clay of Kentucky championed a series of projects designed to improve and update the country’s infrastructure—its roads, bridges, and canals. These projects were part of Clay’s larger vision, called the “American system”, to create a self-sufficient national economy.
Born: July 11, 1767
Died: February 23, 1848
Birthplace: Braintree, MA
V.P.: John C. Calhoun
First Lady: Louisa Catherine Johnson
• Inaugurated when all of the former presidents except for Washington were still alive
• His wife was pregnant 19 times in 22 years
Women’s Work
Most early American factories, especially those in New England, relied on young, unmarried women for their workforce. Working 12-hour days for relatively good wages, these factory girls were the first American women to labor outside the home.
1825
October 26, 1825
The Erie Canal, linking New York City to the Great Lakes, is completed.
1827
Freedom’s Journal is the first anti-slavery journal to be published by African Americans.
July 4, 1828
Work on the Baltimore & Ohio railroad begins.
1828
James Audubon publishes Birds of America, which shows more than 1,000 birds in their natural habitats. The Audubon Society grew out of this effort.
ANDREW JACKSON
Democrat, 1829–1837
Afiery man with a famous temper, Andrew Jackson believed in a strong central government. During his time in office, he opposed southern sectionalism and financial elitism while favoring westward expansion.
Born into an immigrant farming family, Jackson joined the army at age 13 to fight for American independence. After the Revolutionary War, he studied law and became a respected attorney. In 1796, he was elected to Congress to represent the state of Tennessee and, one year later, became a member of the U.S. Senate.
During the War of 1812, Jackson returned to army life. Earning the nickname “Old Hickory” for being as tough as wood, Jackson led his troops to victory against the British at the Battle of New Orleans. When he led a successful invasion of Spanish-controlled Florida in 1817, Jackson became a national hero and set his sights on the presidency.
Jackson won more votes than any other candidate in the election of 1824, but congressional negotiations prevented him from becoming president. Claiming that he had been the victim of a “corrupt bargain,” an outraged Jackson ran for election again in 1828 and won. His frontier upbringing made him the first “common man” to reach the White House.
As president, Jackson supported a strong central government and prevented state officials from nullifying national laws. Preventing nullification was especially difficult for Jackson during his first term because Vice President John C. Calhoun opposed this effort from within the White House. Jackson also ended presidential support of the Bank of the United States, which he believed undermined the central government and neglected the common people. Jackson also encouraged westward expansion and supported the forced removal of several Native American tribes from their traditional homes. Because disease, starvation, and death accompanied Indian removal, Native Americans labeled their journey the “Trail of Tears.”
In 1837, Jackson retired to his Tennessee plantation, The Hermitage. He remained an admired elder statesman until his death in 1845.
Born: March 15, 1767
Died: June 8, 1845
Birthplace: Waxhaw, SC
V.P.: John C. Calhoun, Martin Van Buren
First Lady: Rachel Donelson Robards
• Survived first assassination attempt
• Killed a man in a duel
Davy Crockett (1786–1836)
A legendary hunter, scout, and woodsman, Davy Crockett helped expand America’s borders. Crockett fought the Creek Indians under Andrew Jackson in 1813 and 1814, eventually becoming a colonel in the Tennessee state militia. After serving in the Tennessee legislature, he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives and brought his famous buckskin clothes and coonskin cap to the nation’s capital. In 1835, Crockett moved to Texas in order to help its people break away from Mexico. When Mexican leader Antonio Santa Anna raised an army to resist this effort, Crockett went to war and died with nearly 200 others while defending the Alamo mission. Known for his backwoods charm and homespun wisdom, Crockett remains a symbol of frontier s
elf-reliance.
The Whig Party (c. 1834–1856)
The Whig party conceived of the United States as a unified nation rather than as a confederation of states. Whigs attempted to build the roads, canals, and railroads needed to connect America’s expanding frontier to urban and agricultural centers. They hoped to alleviate sectional tensions and fortify the economy. Whigs also believed that Andrew Jackson had made the presidency too strong (they called him “King Andy”), and they worked to preserve congressional power. The Whig party declined in the early 1850s because it did not cope with the issue of slavery effectively.
The Panic of 1837
Andrew Jackson’s economic policies destabilized the nation’s economy and created a series of problems that erupted after Martin Van Buren took office. In May 1837, more than 600 American banks failed and caused people across the U.S. to panic. As people lost their jobs and prices for food and rent increased, workers called for government assistance. Van Buren’s failure to provide people with direct assistance upset many Americans and even caused workers in New York to riot. In the end, this depression convinced many Americans that the country needed an independent treasury and a more compassionate government.
1837
August 28, 1830
First locomotive built in the U.S., Peter Cooper’s Tom Thumb runs on the Baltimore & Ohio.
August 22, 1831
Slave preacher Nat Turner organizes the first serious revolt against slavery.
1835
Alexis De Toqueville’s Democracy in America is published and provides a unique perspective on American culture.
February 23, 1836
Hoping to prevent Texan independence, 4,000 Mexican soldiers kill 176 Texans defending San Antonio’s Alamo mission.
MARTIN VAN BUREN
Democrat, 1837–1841
Martin Van Buren was the first president to be born an American citizen rather than a British subject. Andrew Jackson’s hand-picked successor, Van Buren planned to fight for the ideas Jackson had championed before an economic depression stalled his presidency.
The son of a tavern keeper and farmer, Van Buren grew up speaking both Dutch and English. After completing his public education at age 14, he clerked at a local law office and began a career in politics. Between 1813 and 1837, Van Buren held a number of state offices in New York before leaving home to serve as secretary of state and vice president. During these years, Van Buren earned the nickname “the Little Magician” for his ability to manipulate fellow politicians. His skilled support of Andrew Jackson’s presidential campaigns won him Jackson’s lasting admiration and allowed him to pursue the presidency himself. He easily won the election of 1836.
Van Buren’s presidency, however, proved unrewarding. Soon after he became president, the American economy plummeted into depression. Convinced that the economy would correct itself, Van Buren did not allow the central government to help suffering citizens and became steadily less popular as a result. Although Andrew Jackson’s monetary policies—especially his attack on the National Bank—were primarily responsible for this depression, Van Buren’s opponents took advantage of his misfortune, labeling him “Martin Van Ruin.”
The national debate over slavery also undermined Van Buren’s presidency. His decision to oppose the annexation of Texas alienated southern politicians and, even worse, angered his longtime supporter Andrew Jackson. Known for his love of fancy clothes, expensive wine, and rich food, Van Buren was politically and personally vulnerable when he ran for re-election. As a result, he lost the election of 1840 to William Henry Harrison, a man whose military background and common touch gave him mass appeal.
Van Buren retired to his New York estate, Lindenwald, and became a vocal opponent of slavery. In 1848, he waged another unsuccessful presidential campaign as a member of the anti-slavery Free Soil party. He remained an advocate of abolition until his death in 1862.
The Panic of 1837
Andrew Jackson’s economic policies destabilized the nation’s economy and created a series of problems that erupted after Martin Van Buren took office. In May 1837, more than 600 American banks failed and caused people across the U.S. to panic. As people lost their jobs and prices for food and rent increased, workers called for government assistance. Van Buren’s failure to provide people with direct assistance upset many Americans and even caused workers in New York to riot. In the end, this depression convinced many Americans that the country needed an independent treasury and a more compassionate government.
Born: December 5, 1782
Died: July 24, 1862
Birthplace: Kinderhook, NY
V.P.: Richard M. Johnson
First Lady: Hannah Hoes
• The first president born as a United States citizen
• The eighth president, the eighth vice president, he lived to see the election of eight different presidents from eight different states
Margaret Fuller (1810–1850)
A path-breaking writer and thinker, Fuller was one of the 19th century’s most influential women. She worked with Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, and Bronson Alcott to develop and explain Transcendentalism, a philosophy that valued self-reliance, individualism, intuition, and the natural world. Fuller wrote for and edited a Transcendentalist journal, The Dial, and in 1845, she published Woman in the Nineteenth Century. Her book called for more women’s rights and inspired the formation of the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848. Fuller later became the first female foreign correspondent when she traveled to Italy and reported on the European revolutions of 1848. In 1850, Fuller, her husband, and their infant son died in a shipwreck while returning to the United States.
1837
1837
Samuel F. B. Morse invents the telegraph, a form of electronic communication.
August 31, 1837
Ralph Waldo Emerson delivers his oration “The American Scholar.”
November 7, 1837
Elijah Lovejoy, a famous abolitionist, is killed by a pro-slavery mob.
December 4, 1837
The Gag Rule goes into effect preventing congressional debate about slavery.
1838
The Underground Railroad is organized to help slaves escape to the North.
WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON
Whig, March–April 1841
William Henry Harrison served the shortest presidential term in American history. Becoming president at the advanced age of 68, Harrison developed a severe case of pneumonia shortly after his inauguration and became the first president to die in office.
The young William expected to be an important man because his father had both signed the Declaration of Independence and served as Virginia’s governor. Originally intending to become a doctor, Harrison joined the army in 1791 and rose to the rank of captain. In 1798, he left the army to become secretary to the Northwest Territory and, 2 years later, became governor of the Indiana Territory. As governor, Harrison bribed Native Americans to sell their lands to the U.S. government and handed out whiskey that caused alcoholism to run rampant among Indians. These hostile acts angered the Shawnee chief Tecumseh and brought government soldiers and Native Americans to the brink of war. As a result, Tecumseh and his brother organized a defensive group of Indian tribes designed to resist white westward expansion. In 1811, Harrison successfully attacked Tecumseh’s village along the Tippecanoe River, earning fame and the nickname “Old Tippecanoe.” He strengthened his reputation even more by defeating the British at the Battle of Thames during the War of 1812.
Like Andrew Jackson, Harrison used his military reputation to advance his political career. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives and the Ohio state senate between 1817 and 1828. In 1840, the Whig party nominated him for president, hoping that his military reputation would help him win the election. Making John Tyler his running mate, Harrison used the catchy slogan “Tippecanoe and Tyler Too” to disguise his aristocratic background and advertise himself as a common frontiersman and self-made ma
n. This tactic was effective and helped him defeat Martin Van Buren by a large majority. He was the first Whig elected president. Forty-eight years later, his grandson Benjamin Harrison became president.
Born: February 9, 1773
Died: April 4, 1841
Birthplace: Charles City County, VA
V.P.: John Tyler
First Lady: Anna Tuthill Symmes
• The first candidate to have a campaign slogan
• Gave the longest inauguration speech of any president (8,445 words)
The Temperance Movement
The temperance movement was a crusade to restrict the buying and selling of liquor in the United States. Beginning in the 1820s, this movement involved a number of prominent American men and women who believed alcohol corrupted people and ultimately made them unhappy. Temperance became increasingly popular after the Civil War, as many people joined the Women’s Christian Temperance Union and the Anti-Saloon League. In 1900, anti-alcohol zealot Carrie Nation brought fame and controversy to the temperance movement when she destroyed saloon liquor and property with a hatchet. This movement ultimately produced the era of Prohibition.
The Amistad Case
In August 1839, 53 African slaves being transported to Cuba aboard the Spanish ship Amistad revolted and killed most of their captors. One of the slaves, Cinque, took command of the ship and ordered the surviving Spaniards to steer it into American waters. Although Spain demanded that the U.S. government return the Africans to Spanish control, American opponents of slavery argued that the Africans should remain free. In March 1841, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the Africans should retain their freedom and be allowed to return home. Based on the notion that Africans were human beings who possessed certain rights, this case helped undermine the practice of slavery in America.