Over the years, many people have helped me to think about my subject, most of all, recently, in Australia. I am grateful to Graeme Henderson and the dynamic staff at the Western Australia Maritime Museum in Fremantle; to Paul Hundley and Mary-Louise Williams and the Australian National Maritime Museum in Sydney; to Andrew Fitzmaurice and Shane White in the Department of History, University of Sydney; to Mark Staniforth, Departments of Archaeology and History, Flinders University, Adelaide; and to Cassandra Pybus and Hamish Maxwell-Stewart, Department of History, University of Tasmania. Other useful discussions took place at the Anglo-American Conference titled “The Sea,” by the Institute for Historical Research, University of London; the International Congress of Maritime Museums, Willemstad, Curaçao; the “Calibrations” conference, Texas A&M University Center for Humanities Research; the conference titled “Seascapes, Littoral Cultures, and Trans Oceanic Exchanges,” organized by the American Historical Association, in Washington, D.C.; the C.V. Starr Center for the Study of the American Experience, Washington College; the Comparative History Seminar, Cornell University; the Department of History, State University of New York at Buffalo; South Street Seaport Museum, New York; the Mellon Foundation Sawyer Seminar titled “Redress in Social Thought, Law, and Literature,” University of California, Irvine; and the United States Merchant Marine Academy. Thanks to all who organized these events and to all who attended and asked their usually passionate questions.
I owe a special debt of gratitude to the students who studied the global history of piracy with me as we sailed around the world on the SS Universe Explorer, a floating university, during the spring of 2001. This energetic, motley crew showed up to class with eye patches, hooks, and peg legs, bellowed “aaargh” at every opportunity, collected pirate lore in every port, and hectored me to write this book. They have been a steadfast source of encouragement and a certain proof of the power of the pirate in popular culture, as have my equally enthusiastic and talented (though less rowdy) students at the University of Pittsburgh.
I am keenly conscious of my advantage in writing this book at a time when serious scholarship on pirates is being done more than ever before. I refer to the work of John C. Appleby, J.S. Bromley, B.R. Burg, David Cordingly, Dian Murray, C.R. Pennell, Anne Pérotin-Dumon, Jo Stanley, Janice E. Thomson, and Peter Lamborn Wilson. I thank them all for their valuable work. It has been my special good fortune to work with three of the best scholars of piracy: Joel Baer, Hans Turley, and Robert C. Ritchie. I also had the pleasure of many illuminating conversations about pirates (and other things) with the late Christopher and Bridget Hill, two exceptional historians (and people) who were major influences in my life. I also fondly recall animated discussions with Christopher’s college roommate, Norman O. Brown, also recently deceased. I seek to remember him in chapter 8.
My former student Sara Lemmond and my graduate student Gabriele Gottlieb provided excellent assistance with research, for which I am most grateful. I owe a special debt of thanks to Frank Shaffer, who has encouraged my work in numerous ways, not least by building a fabulous Web site, which is much better than my ability as an author to draw people to it! It has been an honor—and a profound learning experience—to work with Peter Linebaugh, my coauthor of The Many-Headed Hydra, over the years. Finally, warm thanks to my family, Wendy, Zeke, and Eva, who have suffered endless pirate stories with good cheer. Wendy has helped me in more ways than I can count.
My first foray into these seas appeared as “‘Under the Banner of King Death’: The Social World of Anglo-American Pirates, 1716 to 1726,” William and Mary Quarterly, ser. 3, 38 (1981): 203–27. I remain grateful after all these years to the superb editor Michael McGiffert, who taught a graduate student much about the art and craft of writing. A revised version of the article appeared in what should be considered a companion volume to the present one, Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant Seamen, Pirates, and the Anglo-American Maritime World, 1700–1750 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), on which it was my great good fortune to work with another excellent editor, Frank Smith. I returned to the subject of pirates years later, at the urging of Bob Brugger, Margaret Creighton, and Lisa Norling, when I wrote “Liberty Beneath the Jolly Roger: The Lives of Anne Bonny and Mary Read, Pirates,” in Iron Men, Wooden Women: Gender and Seafaring in the Atlantic World, 1700—1920, ed. Margaret Creighton and Lisa Norling (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996). A revised version of this essay appears here, with permission, as chapter 6. Another chapter was presented at a conference in the Netherlands and was published as “Hydrarchy and Libertalia: The Utopian Dimensions of Atlantic Piracy in the Early Eighteenth Century,” in Pirates and Privateers: New Perspectives on the War on Trade in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries, ed. David J. Starkey, E.S. Van Eyck van Heslinga, and J.A. de Moor (Exeter, England: Exeter University Press, 1997). This in turn formed the basis of chapter 5 of The Many-Headed Hydra: Sailors, Slaves, Commoners, and the Hidden History of the Revolutionary Atlantic (Boston: Beacon Press; London: Verso, 2000), cowritten with Peter Linebaugh. I am especially grateful to Deborah Chasman, who brought that ship to port and soon after launched this one. Gayatri Patnaik, my new editor at Beacon Press, has been a joy to work with. I have benefited immensely from her intelligence, enthusiasm, and steady good judgment. Thanks to Hyla Willis for drawing the diagram in chapter 4 and to Dalia Geffen for expert copyediting. The book is dedicated to two dear friends and comrades, Michael Jiménez and Steve Sapolsky, who died three weeks apart during an awful summer in 2001. These two were brilliant, compassionate historians, both masters of history from below. All of us are much the poorer for their departure, including the poor, still-forgotten peoples past whose histories they would have brought to life.
Index
Please note that page numbers are not accurate for the e-book edition.
abuse, 17, 93, 137–38, 176, 221n7, 221n9. See also beatings; brutality; lashings; rape; torture; violence; whippings
accidents, 9, 43, 49, 74
admirals, 29, 57, 59, 100, 146–47
Admiralty, 53, 139, 162. See also Courts of Admiralty
Africa, 13, 110; Calabar, 52, 141, 143; fortresses in, 39, 139; land in, 22, 27; pirates from, 52–53, 55, 63; pirates in, 31, 47, 138; and trade, 33, 140, 142; Whydah, 52, 141, 143, 144. See also Africans; Cape Coast Castle; Royal African Company; Sierra Leone; Sierra Leone River
Africa, West, 55; and merchant ships, 34, 140; and pirate ships, 7, 36, 37, 165; and slave trade, 39, 137, 144–45; trade with, 9, 35, 128
African Americans, 20, 214n23; who turned pirate, 6, 53, 54
Africans, 12, 76, 214n23; enslaved, 22, 54; who turned pirate, 6, 54
alcohol, 59, 149, 194n29; capture of, 71–73, 162; during mutinies, 45, 77. See also drunkenness
allegory, 122–23, 124
Allen, Richard, 94, 99–100, 129–30
America, North, 30, 41, 52; pirates in, 36, 56, 62; and trade, 9, 35. See also New England; Newfoundland; names of specific states
America, Spanish, 45, 128, 144
American Weekly Mercury, 29, 108
Americas, the, 8, 22, 27, 32, 33. See also African Americans; New World
ammunition, 99, 138
Anstis, Thomas, 69, 80; play by crew of, 155–61
Antigua: governors of, 16, 27, 32, 163, 170; hangings in, 10, 160, 170; pirates from, 52, 55
Archer, John Rose, 45, 93
armies, 22, 63–64, 105, 110. See also soldiers
articles, 75, 195n40; drawing up of, 77, 81, 165; signing of, 56, 79, 97; and women, 74, 205n21
Ashplant, Valentine, 9, 12
Ashton, Philip, 97, 130, 132, 152
Atkins, John, 44
attacks: by Blackbeard, 9, 13, 33; on Blackbeard, 82, 86, 99, 150–51, 175; on forts, 39, 139; by Howell Davis, 39, 71; involving Edward England, 33, 47, 68–69, 83–84, 91, 141; involving Spain, 24, 45, 94, 98; by Low, 14; by Lowther, 33, 162–63; on merchant ships, 9, 95, 103, 149; on pirates, 49; by pr
ivateers, 21, 33; on Roberts, 37, 97, 143, 175; by Roberts and crew, 92, 95–96, 101–2, 139, 142, 148, 161; on ships, 7, 9, 21; by women, 113. See also battles; burning; capture; sinkings; violence; war
attorneys general, 94, 99, 129–30, 161; in plays, 155, 157–58, 159
Augustine (saint), 175
authority, 62; and autonomy, 45, 63, 154; distance from, 135–36; legitimate, 87, 117, 133, 145, 146, 165; on pirate ships, 61, 62, 65, 66, 67–68, 76; royal, 36, 85
Avery, Henry, 8, 38, 41, 173; crew of, 26
Azores, 10, 14
Bahama Islands, 16, 138; hangings in, 10, 11, 58; pirate community in, 7, 31, 36, 39, 52, 59, 95; as rendezvous, 29, 30, 80, 81, 137; support for pirates in, 100
Baptist (pirate captain), 54
Barbados, 52, 56, 190–91n44
Barnard, John, 132
Barrow, James, 53, 80
Batchelor’s Adventure (ship), 197n6
Batchelor’s Delight (ship), 197n6
battles, 107, 130, 150–51, 173
Bayley, Job, 161
baymen, 43, 45, 95
beatings, 57, 92, 106, 220n3; of captains, 2, 88, 91. See also lashings; whippings
Beer, Samuel, 69
Beggar’s Opera, The (play), 54, 120, 121, 175
Bellamy, Black Sam, 79, 116, 139
Bellamy, Black Sam, crew of, 13, 48, 67, 73, 80; ethnicity of, 53, 54
Bellamy, Black Sam, and crew, 32, 80; ships captured by, 33, 69
Bennett, Benjamin, 47, 55, 57
Bermuda, 29; hangings in, 10, 160–61; officials of, 55, 57, 96, 99; pirates in, 31, 95; support for pirates in, 100
Besnick, John, 109, 112
Bevan, Jacob, 167
Blackbeard, 36, 173; attacks by, 9, 13, 33; attacks on, 82, 86, 99, 150–51, 175; blockade by, 32, 74; crew of, 45, 54, 80, 93, 95; image of, 152–53
Blacketer, George, 46
Blackmore, Sir Richard, 134
black people, 46; pirates, 53–56, 120–21, 132, 151. See also African Americans; Africans
boarding parties, 48–49, 54, 67, 118
Board of Trade, 96, 140
boatswains, 68, 70, 79, 89–90, 91
Bonnet, Stede, 3, 50, 56, 86; and crew, 54, 72, 80, 93–94, 99–100, 154; trials of, 72, 94, 99–100, 129–30
Bonny, Anne, 104–22, 125–26; cross-dressing of, 107, 108–9, 110, 112–13, 206n35; family of, 56, 106, 115, 117; and fighting, 106–7, 112, 115, 116, 118, 206n31; as inspiration, 120–21; in literature, 105, 107–8, 125; lovers of, 107, 117, 207n40; trial of, 104, 107
Bonny, James, 117
booty, 14, 29, 39, 67, 73. See also pillage; plunder
Boston, 95; hangings in, 1–2, 5, 10, 13, 99, 127, 165; trials in, 4, 85, 129
Boston News-Letter, 14, 27, 108, 131, 132, 148
Boucher, Theodore, 137
boys, 66, 74, 76
Bradish, Joseph, 148–49
Bradley, George, 158, 160–61
Bradshaw, John, 41
Brett, John, 72
Britain, 8, 10, 99, 197n2; army of, 110; colonies of, 24, 32; enemies of, 107; and extermination of piracy, 37, 141; government of, 97, 120, 162; hangings in, 40, 41, 148–49; laws of, 129; merchants of, 128, 139, 142, 144; pirates from, 51–52, 53, 55, 94; ships of, 15–16, 34, 94, 206n31; subjects of, 171, 220n2; wars of, 21. See also America, North; England; English, the; Ireland; Navy, Royal; Scotland; Wales; names of specific colonies
Bromley, J.S., 64
Brown, Christopher, 80, 189n31
Brown, Thomas, 95
brutality, 143; on merchant and naval ships, 9, 17, 43, 57, 89, 91
buccaneers, 8, 60, 191n4; raids by, 98; traditions of, 36, 62–64, 74
Buck, Samuel, 59
Buck (ship), 39, 77
Bunce, Phineas, 47, 80
Burg, B. R., 74
Burgess (pirate captain), 80
burning: of forts, 39; of merchant ships, 9, 95, 149; of ships, 13, 15, 34, 91, 101, 139, 141
Buttcher (pirate captain), 80
Byron, Lord, 125
Caesar (pirate), 54, 151
Cain, Captain, 92
Candler, Captain, 53
Cane, Constantine, 86
Cape Coast Castle, 58, 141, 142; captured pirates at, 7, 9; hangings at, 10, 12, 48, 169, 170; trials at, 95, 143
capitalism, 70, 120, 143, 145
captains, 16; authority of, 17, 25; capture of, 39, 66, 72, 87, 95, 116; capture of pirates by, 170; character of, 84, 85, 88, 91; and extermination of piracy, 142–43; gifts for, 87, 88, 199n15; and hangings, 11; murder of, 2–3, 4, 17, 171, 180n30; naval, 69, 138, 170; poor treatment by, 4, 15, 18, 180n30; privateering, 64; punishment of, 14, 40, 87, 93. See also names of individuals
captains, merchant: abuse by, 93, 176; capture of, 65, 72–73, 83–85, 86, 87, 148, 161. See also names of individuals
captains, pirate, 36, 74, 196n49; election of, 39, 42, 65, 78, 80, 81, 165; formerly quartermasters, 68, 115; hanging of, 47, 172; and plunder, 33, 70; punishment of, 76, 82. See also names of individuals
capture: of captains, 39, 65, 66, 72, 87, 95, 116; of goods, 28; of merchant captains, 72–73, 83–85, 86, 87, 91, 148, 161; of merchants, 58, 86–87; of merchant ships, 33–35, 48–49, 72, 89, 140, 148, 161; of officials, 97; by pirates, 7, 9; of pirate ships, 96, 130; by Roberts, 15, 48, 92; of ships, 69, 81, 85, 90, 141, 162, 185n27; of slave ships, 54; of women, 105, 108–9, 111
capture of pirates, 12, 40, 51, 95, 132, 220n1; female, 106, 116; Fly, 2, 4, 153; by Orme, 69, 170; rewards for, 136; Roberts and crew, 7, 11–12, 169
cargo, 15, 67, 92, 131, 148–49, 162. See also booty; plunder
Caribbean, the, 30, 36. See also names of specific islands
Carolinas, the, 31, 153
carpenters, 48, 50, 68, 70, 79
Cary, Samuel, 148–49, 150
Cassandra (ship), 79, 83
Catholics and Catholicism, 8, 21, 24, 94, 191n4
Checkley, Thomas, 85
children, 27, 49–50; illegitimate, 105, 106, 112, 115, 119. See also boys
Christianity, 2, 132, 152, 166
Clark, Peter, 44
class, 6, 61, 136, 204n17; and law, 159–60; lower, 50, 112, 114, 116, 155, 189n27; and privilege, 40; ruling, 127, 168; upper, 36, 62, 65, 85, 117; and war, 176; working, 120, 205–6n26
Cocklyn, Thomas, 56, 76; and captives, 47, 87–88, 151; and crew, 80, 94, 98, 141; and newcomers, 79, 89
Cockram, Philip, 36, 80
Coke, Sir Edward, 26, 128
Cole, John, 86
Cole, Samuel, 1–2, 10, 49
collectivism, 26, 45, 61, 63, 94, 101, 155
Colman, Benjamin, 4, 5, 132, 153
colonies and colonialism, 22–23, 24, 31, 53, 99. See also America, North; America, Spanish; New World; names of specific colonies
commodities, 21, 22, 28
community, 56, 63, 94–95, 97, 98, 192n8, 205n25
Condent, Edward, 80, 154, 189n31
Condick, George, 1–2, 10, 177n4
confessions, 133, 213n14
conflict, 63, 111
cooks, 60, 73, 76
Cooper, Joseph, 44, 54, 80, 151
Cornelius, Peter, 109, 112
Council of Trade and Plantations, 20, 27, 46, 53, 96, 107; and captured ships, 7, 34, 47; and Low, 170–71
councils, common, 68–69, 79, 84, 165
courage, 115, 116, 210n59
courts: of Admiralty, 17, 41, 103, 128, 185n1; mock, 155–61
cowardice, 65, 69, 107, 116
Creed, Captain, 91
crews and crew members, pirate, 34, 123; abuse of, 2, 4, 15, 17, 86, 176; and alcohol, 73; attacks by, 139; and captives, 148, 149, 152; capture of, 7, 11–12, 169; and capture of ships, 95, 141, 162; connections among, 78–79, 80, 81; division of, 81, 82; executions by, 76; intimidation of, 14–15, 165; and language, 93, 97–98, 109, 115; murder of, 171; plays by, 155–61; power of, 44, 61; and relations with captains, 32, 33, 69, 79, 80; self-destruction of, 102, 149; size of, 196n49; and tri
als, 26, 72, 94, 154; and women, 74, 108, 111. See also Bellamy, Black Sam, crew of; capture of pirates; councils, common; hangings; mutinies and mutineers; pirates; Roberts, Bartholomew and crew
Crickett/Crichett, Mary, 112
crime, 56, 93, 101, 174. See also murder; piracy
cross-dressing, 207n42; of children, 105, 106, 119; in plays, 120–21; of women, 112, 113, 114, 206nn27–28; of women pirates, 107, 108–9, 110, 206n35
cruelty, 65, 69, 132; of pirates, 170, 171, 220nn1–3
Cuba, 46, 155
culture, 125; buccaneering, 64; international, 17, 55–56; maritime, 26, 61, 150; pirate, 66, 77, 79, 81–82, 115, 168, 219n26; working-class, 26, 114
Curaçao, 10, 130, 160
customs, 117; maritime, 62–63; pirate, 64–65, 71, 81, 87, 97
D., Anne-Charlotte, 125
Daggs, John, 141
dancing, 71, 155
Davies, Christian, 113
Davis, Edward, 76
Davis, Howell, 47, 52, 88, 93; attacks by, 39, 71; and crew, 76, 79, 87, 94, 139, 141; mutiny by, 77
Davis, Ralph, 23, 33
Davis, Thomas, 79
Deal, Robert, 44, 80
death, 101, 135, 140; embrace of, by pirates, 153–54, 155; and the Jolly Roger, 164–69; of pirates, 41, 95, 143, 219n19; and pirates’ humor, 157–61; premature, of sailors, 9, 27, 43, 44, 110, 187n16; by suicide, 150, 151. See also executions; hangings; killing; murder
debt, 45, 56
Defoe, Daniel, 119, 179–80n24
Dekker, Rudolf M., 113, 206n27, 206n34
Delacroix, Eugène, 123–25, 209n56, 210n59
Delivery (ship), 78, 138
democracy, 82, 176; and authority, 62, 81; in decision making, 63, 68, 69; and election of officers, 64, 66, 155; and voting, 71, 115
demonization, 6, 130, 136
Denmark, 52, 53
Depauw, Linda Grant, 109, 203n8, 204n12, 205n18, 207n36
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