Margaret of York: The Diabolical Duchess

by Christine Weightman

  Margaret had a truly medieval interest in relics. Apart from her attendance at the opening of St Rombout’s tomb and her many visits to shrines on saints days, she even became involved in arguments over the ownership of relics. She supported the canons of St Ursmer’s at Binche in their struggle with the clergy of St Lambert’s at Liège over the relics which had belonged to the old Abbey of Lobbe.49 It was a lengthy dispute which seems never to have been finally settled. Her veneration for relics, popularly regarded as a cure for all the ills of the body and the soul, was the sort of superstition strongly attacked by many of the fifteenth century reformers. Certainly, Margaret was not in the vanguard of change. Her attitude towards the Church was essentially that of the great feudatories and she did not hesitate to challenge churchmen who interfered with her secular interests. She even clashed with her friend the Bishop of Cambrai over the infringement of sanctuary by her bailiff at Dendermonde. Towards the end of her life she was engaged in a bitter argument with the Abbot of Tongerloo when he refused to sell her the castle of Ter Elst which she wanted to acquire as a country retreat.50 Nor did she hesitate to use her considerable authority to settle a dispute at Mons in favour of her Black Sisters and against the canons of St Waudrin’s.

  Although she was old fashioned in these respects she still seems to have had a more intellectual interest in religious matters than her mother Cecily, and she encouraged education and learning. In her Will she left money for a scholarship at the University of Louvain.51 One of the first beneficiaries of this bequest was Adrian Dedel (or Florizoon) from Utrecht. Her bequest helped him along the road which led him to become a doctor of theology, the Dean of the University and finally Pope Adrian VI. She also saw that her chaplain, Robert Camell, was supported during his studies and she paid for the education of a poor child at Ghent in the school run by the brothers of St Jerome.52

  Considering her religious devotion, it is appropriate that almost all the miniatures of her which have survived show her praying or reading.53 The most colourful miniatures portraying the Duchess are those by Jean Dreux illustrating Nicolas Finet’s Benois seront les Misèricordieux (Blessed are the Merciful). Here Margaret is shown directly involved in acts of charity and at prayer.54 There are two illuminated leaves and on one of them there are eight separate miniatures. Margaret is depicted giving food to a cripple and an orphan, offering drink and alms to a pilgrim, clothing the naked and visiting the prisons and hospitals. In the final miniature she is reading at a prie-dieu which is draped with the royal arms of England. In the second miniature Margaret is again depicted kneeling, accompanied by the four founding fathers of the early Church, Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome and Gregory, and by her own patron saint, Margaret.

  In both miniatures the Duchess is richly dressed in a magnificent gown of crimson cloth of gold, with a deep trim of ermine. This is comparatively unusual for in most of the other miniatures portraying her, she is more soberly dressed in a black or grey gown. This suggests that the manuscript was made very shortly after her marriage or perhaps even in its honour. The arms of England and of Burgundy appear in the paintings and in the margins are interlaced ‘Cs’ and ‘Ms’. It would have been a most appropriate gift to the Duchess on her Joyeuse Entrée to Brussels, since the city’s beautiful Gothic buildings, St Gudule with its twin towers, Our Lady of the Sablon, the City Gates and the Town Hall feature in the background of the miniatures. The book would have pleased her not only for its beauty but also for its content. In it Nicholas Finet described the duties of a Christian duchess.

  About twenty-five books have been identified as having been ‘visibly’ in Margaret’s possession. This is a relatively small number but it is, nevertheless, one of the largest collections of this period traced to female ownership. For this reason alone Margaret merits the name of bibliophile.55 Great fifteenth century libraries existed both in Burgundy and in England, but these were owned by men. Duke Humphrey of Gloucester had thousands of books and manuscripts and his brother, the Duke of Bedford, also had a large personal library. Of Margaret’s contemporaries at the English court, both Lord Hastings and Anthony Woodville had substantial collections of books. Margaret Beaufort and Anthony Woodville were sufficiently interested to make their own translations of French works and have them printed. However, within Margaret’s immediate family there is little evidence of a serious interest in books, though her great-uncle, Edward, Duke of York had translated a French hunting manual, her father commissioned at least one translation from the classics and her mother had a library of religious books.56 There was apparently no substantial Yorkist library until after Edward IV’s visit to his sister’s court in 1471. It was thus not until her arrival in Burgundy that Margaret had personal access to a really large and comprehensive collection.

  The library of Duke Philip the Good was one of the greatest in Europe, not only in quantity, but also in quality and variety. It has been estimated that he had about nine hundred volumes in total.57 They covered all subjects including religion, history, the classics, myths and legends, genealogy, chivalry and military history and there was a place for the best-sellers of the period such as the ‘Roman de la Rose’ and the ‘Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles’, a French version of ‘The Decameron’. Margaret’s taste would be influenced not only by her own piety but also by the great literary tradition of the Burgundian court. The variety of languages used within the duchy was an added stimulus to the writers of the period and Duke Charles’ library included works and translations in French, Dutch, Latin, Italian and Portuguese.

  The books attributed to Margaret’s library were all in French and included several translations from the Latin which she had commissioned. It is not surprising that she had no books in English since most books written for the nobility, even in England, were still in French. Indeed the only evidence of her association with an English text concerns the translation made and printed by William Caxton. Many of Margaret’s books were copies of ones which belonged to the ducal libraries58 and the majority of those which have survived were acquired during the lifetime of Duke Charles, either as gifts or as personal commissions.59 Most of the books attributed to Margaret came to her purely in her capacity as Duchess of Burgundy. It is clear that all those who knew the Duchess regarded books as a suitable gift for this intelligent woman and were sure that such presents would be appreciated.

  During the fifteenth century Burgundy was the literary centre of northern Europe and after her marriage Margaret found herself at a court which patronized living authors. Chastellain was the chief chronicler and historian for both Philip and Charles, and after his death there were plenty of rivals for his place among Molinet, Olivier de La Marche, Jehan de Waurin and Jacques Clercq. Eventually it was Molinet who became the real heir to the Burgundian tradition of historical writing, since Commynes, the more lively author, chose to leave Burgundy for the court of France. With Olivier de La Marche in her own household, Margaret was in close contact with this literary and historical tradition. Although there is no evidence that she commissioned any of these authors, she was certainly interested in history and in chronicles. Her coat of arms were added to a copy of Chastellain’s ‘Instructions for a Young Prince’, which was originally written for her husband. This particular copy may have been made for the young Archduke Philip or even for the future Charles V. She also owned a copy of ‘Les Chroniques de Flandre’, given to her by Mary in 1477 after the death of Duke Charles.60

  The great majority of Margaret’s own books were on religious subjects. Only four were of secular or classical origin and even one of these, the ‘Consolationes’ by Boethius, had been adopted as a religious tract.61 Of the other three, ‘Des Faiz du Grant Alexandre’ (The Deeds of Alexander the Great) was originally made for Charles. One of the miniatures shows Vasco de Lucena, the translator, presenting the book to the Duke but it was not completed until after Charles’ death. The inscription at the end of the book shows that it was in fact given away by Mary and Margaret and was never truly part of Margaret
’s library. ‘La Fleur des Hystoires’ by Jean Mansel, which was a history of the world from its beginning to about 1400, was also a copy of a work in the ducal library, and this together with ‘Les Chroniques de Flandre’ are the only truly secular books known to have had a permanent place in Margaret’s personal library.62

  In view of her access to the ducal library it is unwise to deduce too much from the small number of books which actually carry her own arms or signature. She could have read as widely as she chose and those few volumes of her personal collection which have survived may not be entirely representative of her taste and interests. The books bearing her arms and signatures were most likely those she kept through her later years and were the consolation of a Dowager, to which she turned regularly for her religious devotions and for contemplation.

  Her taste in religious books ranged from standard theological works such as the ‘Contemplations of St Augustine’, translated for her by Vasco de Lucena, to the more exotic ‘Les Visions du chevalier Tondal’, the tale of a twelfth century Irish knight who found himself transported into heaven and hell.63 She also possessed a copy of ‘L’Apocalypse’ of St John, with additional extracts from the ‘Legenda Aurea’ (The Golden Legend), a ‘Bible moralisée’, which had been made for the Duke and the Duchess, several Books of Hours and Breviaries and many collections of sermons and moral tracts. The finest of the Books of Hours associated with Margaret is the ‘Hours of the Virgin’ containing thirty-four miniatures some of which were probably made by Lieven van Lathem, one of the artists who had worked on the tableaux and decorations for her marriage.

  As well as the sermons of well-known theologians such as Jean Gerson and Father Laurent du Bois whose ‘La Somme le Roi’ was popular with all the nobility, Margaret had several books by clerics at the Burgundian court. Among these were the works of Nicolas Finet, a canon of Cambrai who was also Margaret’s almoner and Charles Soillot who had been secretary to Charles when he was the Count of Charolais. Soillot’s book ‘Le Livre de Felicité et Vie’ was in the form of a dialogue on eternal happiness. A leaf of the gradual which was part of this book survived in the possession of the Observant Friars at Greenwich. The gradual may have been a gift from Margaret to the Order on the foundation of the house in England.

  Charles had a greater interest in the classics than his wife. The books he took with him to the siege of Nancy included the works of Xenophon, translated by Lucena, and the histories of Hannibal and Alexander. Like Margaret he also had a sophisticated taste in the manuscripts themselves. This is especially apparent in the magnificent ‘Black Book of Hours’ that he gave to Galeazzo Sforza in 1466.64 The vellum had been dyed black or deep purple and the miniatures were then painted in gold and silver, a costly and elaborate method. Margaret’s preference was for a lighter, more delicate and more realistic style. Her books were all of the highest standard and are masterpieces of the craft of bookmaking which was then enjoying its final flourish in the workshops of the Burgundian Netherlands.

  More than a third of her books were copied by David Aubert, who after beginning his career in Brussels spent the rest of his working life in Ghent.65 Scribes like Aubert were responsible for the calligraphy and the production of a book and they worked closely with the translators and the artists who painted the borders and the miniatures. Aubert’s manuscripts were known for their excellent script in the style known as ‘Bastarda’ or ‘gothic batarde’. Aubert worked for both Philip the Good and Charles the Bold, who honoured him by making personal visits to his workshops, incidents which were recorded in miniatures. After Charles’ death he worked for Margaret and his copy of the ‘Consolationes’ by Boethius includes an illustration showing Aubert presenting his work to the Duchess who wears a long train trimmed with ermine and is attended by five ladies-in-waiting. In the copy of ‘Les Visions du chevalier Tondal’ which he made for Margaret at Ghent in 1474, he humbly described himself as the Duchess’ ‘très petit indigne escripvain’ (very minor and unworthy scribe). It is a measure of his prestige and of the spirit of Burgundy that while Edward IV was considered remarkable for visiting the homes of the merchants of London, the rulers of Burgundy and their successor the Archduke Maximilian were distinguished by their visits to the studios of their book-makers and artists. Maximilian, for example, visited Hugo van der Goes in his retreat at the Rode Klooster.66

  The margins of Margaret’s books were decorated with realistic and beautiful flowers, leaves, fruit and birds. These and the miniatures were made by the best artists of the age, including Jean Dreux, Simon Marmion, and Guillaume Vrelant. Jean Dreux, who illustrated Finet’s two books, had worked for Philip and Charles and was appointed a valet de chambre. Simon Marmion had also worked for Duke Charles, who may have commissioned him to paint the portrait of Margaret which hangs in the Louvre. His most notable works for Margaret were his miniatures for the two books on the visions of Tondel.67 These were probably Margaret’s most magnificent books. The miniatures of the horrors of Hell and the delights of Heaven reveal a highly imaginative and exotic style resembling the later works of Hieronymous Bosch. Did they also reflect Margaret’s taste and her own religious conceptions? If so, the solemn Louvre portrait may well be a true representation of her character.

  Some of the finest miniatures were made for Margaret by the unknown artist called ‘The Master of Mary of Burgundy’. This painter seems to have begun his career under Margaret’s patronage.68 It has been suggested that he may have been either a brother of Hugo van der Goes or like him, a brother at the Abbey of the Rode Klooster near Brussels, or Alexander Bening of Bruges. He painted the very delicate miniature of the Duchess which appears in the ‘Traités de Morale’, showing Margaret at prayer before an unusual representation of the Holy Trinity. God the Father bears the crucified Christ in his arms and the Holy Spirit in the form of a dove hovers beside them. A human touch is added by Margaret’s small whippet scampering in the background.

  One of the most interesting miniatures in the style of this artist has survived in the ‘Register of the Ghent Guild of St Anne’ now in the Royal Library at Windsor Castle. Margaret and Mary were patrons of this guild from 1473, and they were presented with an illuminated register of the members. A miniature depicts Margaret and her stepdaughter kneeling together in the chapel of St Anne. However the finest work of this artist appears in a Book of Hours which he made for the Archduchess Mary.69 This outstanding miniature is set in an architectural frame which seems to depict the house of Lord Louis of Gruuthuyse, where there was a window looking directly into the chancel of the Church of Our Lady at Bruges. A lady is seated at this window where she is reading with her dog on her lap, and below her in the body of the church there is a group of ladies including two very finely dressed figures, one of whom may be Margaret. At the right-hand side there is the figure of a man who might be Lord Louis. Gruuthuyse was closely associated with both Margaret and her stepdaughter and was particularly valuable to them in the crisis of 1477-8. He also had a great library and may also have influenced Margaret’s taste in books, though she favoured the Brussels and Ghent studios rather than the more elaborate Bruges bookmakers patronised by Lord Louis and later by Edward IV.

  Margaret frequently gave books as presents to friends, churches and convents, though very few of these gifts have survived in their entirety. The ‘Vie de St Colette’, the ‘Des Faiz du Grant Alexandre’ and ‘La dyalogue de la Duchesse de Bourgogne’ by Finet, which she gave to her old friend Jeanne de Hallewijn, are exceptions.70 Through her piety and her gifts to churches and convents, the Dowager was seeking the salvation of her immortal soul. She achieved a more worldly immortality with the bold signature which she inscribed in many of her books.71 Her energetic and untidy autograph indicates a far from scholarly hand, but it also suggests a bold and forceful personality, very far removed from the modest and retiring ideal of Christian womanhood recommended in the devotio moderna.

  The literary heritage of Burgundy, so cherished by Margaret, was also appreciat
ed by Maximilian and Philip the Fair. Maximilian showed a particular zeal for the written word, with his autobiographical Weisskünig and the virtual encyclopaedia which he planned as his memorial.72 At least some of his literary interests may have been stimulated by Margaret. She had a more direct influence on Philip the Fair and on Margaret of Austria, who inherited both the ducal library and most of the Dowager’s own books.

  Her influence was also felt by her family and friends in England. It was not until after his stay in the Low Countries that Edward IV began to commission and collect a series of illuminated manuscripts.73 Gruuthuyse was also a major influence on Edward’s taste but it was his experience of the ducal collections which acted as a spur. The first Yorkist King was eager to display the opulence and magnificence of his court and after his return from Burgundy he seems to have been resolved to outshine his brother-in-law in every respect. Lord Hastings wrote to ask Olivier de La Marche for a copy of the household ordinances of Duke Charles, and the household of Edward’s heir was established with these in mind.74 Determined to create a royal library to equal its Burgundian model the King began to buy in books and manuscripts. Like his sister, Edward chose to have most of his books in French. Since he left the bulk of his religious books to his wife and these were dispersed after her death, the full extent of Margaret’s influence is hard to assess. One of the few religious volumes which has survived from Edward’s library is a French translation of St Augustine’s ‘Civitas Dei’.75 Edward seems to have preferred histories and chronicles. He owned copies of ‘La Fleur des Hystoires’ and the ‘Les Chroniques de Flandre’.76