The Portable Medieval Reader

by James Bruce Ross

  My own heartily beloved Cousin Katherine, I recommend myself to you with all the inwardness of my heart. And now you shall understand that I lately received a token from you, which was and is right heartily welcome to me, and with glad will I received it. And besides that I had a letter from Howlake, your gentle squire, by which I understand right well that you are in good health of body, and merry at heart. And I pray God heartly to His pleasure to continue the same; for it is to me a very great comfort that you are so, so help me Jesus. And if you would be a good eater of your meat always, so that you might wax and grow fast to be a woman, you should make me the gladdest man in the world, by my troth. For when I remember your favour and your sober loving conduct towards me, truly you make me very glad and joyous in my heart, and on the other hand again when I remember your youth—And therefore I pray you, my own sweet Cousin, even as you love me, to be merry and to eat your meat like a woman. And if you will do so for my love, whatever you desire of me, by my troth, I promise you by the help of our Lord to perform it if I can. I can say no more now, but when I come home, I will tell you much more, between you and me and before God. And when you, full womanly and like a lover, remember me with manifold recommendations in diverse manners, sending the same to my discretion to distribute as I see fit, forsooth, my own sweet Cousin, you know that with good heart and good will I receive and take to myself one half of them, and those I will keep by me, and the other half with hearty love and favour I send to you, my own sweet Cousin, to keep with you; and besides I send you the blessing that our Lady gave her dear Son, to fare well always.

  I pray you, greet well my horse, and ask him to give you four of his years to help you, and when I come home I will give him four of my years and four horse loaves to make up for it. Tell him that I asked him this. And, Cousin Katherine, I thank you for him, and my wife shall thank you for him hereafter, for I am told that you take great pains with him. My own sweet cousin, I heard lately that you were in Calais to look for me, but you could not see me or find me; truly you might have come to my counter, and there you would have found me and seen me, and not have failed to find me. But you looked for me in a wrong Calais.... I pray you, gentle Cousin, commend me to the Clock, and ask him to amend his unthrifty manners, for he always strikes in undue time, and he will always be ahead, and that is an unsatisfactory condition. Tell him that unless he amends his condition, he will cause strangers to avoid him and come there no more. I trust that he will improve before my coming, which will be shortly, with all hands and all feet, with God’s grace. My very faithful Cousin, I trust that though I have not remembered my right worshipful mistress your mother before in this letter, you will of your gentleness recommend me to her as many times as you like. And you may say, if you please, that in Whitsun Week next I plan to go to the market. And I trust you will pray for me, for I shall pray for you, and, it may be, none so well. And Almighty Jesus make you a good woman and send you many good years and long, to live in health and virtue to His pleasure. At great Calais on this side of the sea, the first day of June, when every man had gone to his dinner, and the Clock struck nine, and all our household called after me and bade me come down: “Come to dinner at once!” and what answer I gave them you know of old.

  By your faithful Cousin and lover Thomas Betson.

  I send you this ring for a token.

  To my faithful and heartily Beloved Cousin Katherine Riche at Stonor this letter is delivered in haste.

  A WIFE TO HER HUSBAND, 1476

  Right entirely and best beloved husband: I recommend myself to you in the most loving way that I can or may. Moreover, may it please you to know that I have received your letter, and a bill enclosed in the same letter which I have read and understood right well; and as for all such stuff as the bill specifies, I have not as yet received it. Nevertheless the barge is coming with the said stuff tonight at seven o’clock, and so, Sir, it will be morning before I can receive it. Furthermore, Sir, may it please you to know that on last Friday I dined with my father and my mother. And there were at dinner with them the friends of the boy who was proposed for one of my daughters when you were last here. And so after dinner they made their communication on the said matter, whereby I understood how they were disposed in this matter. And truly it was not at all as it was spoken of in the beginning; wherefore I answered in this way, that though she were my child, as she is, I could not answer this matter without you, and would do nothing. Nevertheless, I answered in your behalf that I knew right well that you would be a right kind and loving father, if God designs that you and they should deal. And at what you write, that the bargemen are loath to take and receive any stuff of ours, I marvel greatly; for truly I never had anything carried by any of them, but that I paid them truly for it. And Sir, as for the six pair of dried cod which you write for, they shall be bought and sent you right shortly. And as for your gowns of camlet and doublets of silk, I have bought them, and they will please you right well at your coming, I trust to God. And Sir, my son Betson recommends himself to you, and he came home on Monday last, and has brought with him, blessed be God, good tidings, which he and I shall tell you when you come. And as you write that you will send me a wild boar and other venison for Sunday, I thank you as heartily as I can. But truly I would yet pray you to speed hither as soon as you can; for I would trust to God’s mercy it should be to your profit and avail in time to come, by the grace of our Lord, who preserve and keep you ever to His pleasure and your heart’s comfort. Amen. At London the xi day of December....

  And Cousin, when you wrote me I had no leisure; truly I have been sick and busy, or else I would have written to you before this.

  By your own Elizabeth Stonor.

  To my right well beloved Cousin, Willian Stoner, esquire at Stoner, this be delivered.

  From The Stonor Letters and Papers, C. L. Kingsford, ed. (London: Camden Society, 3rd series, vols. 29 and 30, nos. 30, 140, 166, 176; 1919); trans. M.M.M.

  THE PEASANTS AND BURGHERS: THE WORKERS

  The Feet of the Commonwealth

  JOHN OF SALISBURY

  Twelfth century

  THOSE are called the feet who discharge the humbler offices, and by whose services the members of the whole commonwealth walk upon solid earth. Among these are to be counted the husbandmen, who always cleave to the soil, busied about their plough-lands or vineyards or pastures or flower-gardens. To these must be added the many species of cloth-making, and the mechanic arts, which work in wood, iron, bronze, and the different metals; also the menial occupations, and the manifold forms of getting a livelihood and sustaining life, or increasing household property, all of which, while they do not pertain to the authority of the governing power, are yet in the highest degree useful and profitable to the corporate whole of the commonwealth. All these different occupations are so numerous that the commonwealth in the number of its feet exceeds not only the eight-footed crab but even the centipede, and because of their very multitude they cannot be enumerated; for while they are not infinite by nature, they are yet of so many different varieties that no writer on the subject of offices or duties has ever laid down particular precepts for each special variety. But it applies generally to each and all of them that in their exercise they should not transgress the limits of the law, and should in all things observe constant reference to the public utility. For inferiors owe it to their superiors to provide them with service, just as the superiors in their turn owe it to their inferiors to provide them with all things needful for their protection and succour.

  From Policraticus, trans. J. Dickinson.

  The Duties of Manorial Officers

  Thirteenth century

  THE OFFICE OF SENESCHAL

  THE seneschal of lands ought to be prudent and faithful and profitable, and he ought to know the law of the realm to protect his lord’s business and to instruct and give assurance to the bailiffs who are beneath him in their difficulties. He ought two or three times a year to make his rounds and visit the manors of his stewardship
, and then he ought to inquire about the rents, services, and customs, hidden or withdrawn, and about franchises of courts, lands, woods, meadows, pastures, waters, mills, and other things which belong to the manor and are done away with without warrant, by whom, and how: and if he be able let him amend these things in the right way without doing wrong to any, and if he be not, let him show it to his lord, that he may deal with it if he wish to maintain his right.

  The seneschal ought, at his first coming to the manors, to cause all the demesne lands of each to be measured by true men, and he ought to know by the perch of the country how many acres there are in each field, and thereby he can know how much wheat, rye, barley, oats, peas, beans, and dredge one ought by right to sow in each acre, and thereby can one see if the provost or the hayward account for more seed than is right, and thereby can he see how many ploughs are required on the manor, for each plough ought by right to plough nine score acres, that is to say: sixty for winter seed, sixty for spring seed, and sixty in fallow. Also he can see how many acres ought to be ploughed yearly by boon or custom, and how many acres remain to be tilled by the ploughs of the manor. And further he can see how many acres ought to be reaped by boon and custom, and how many for money. And if there be any cheating in the sowing, or ploughing, or reaping, he shall easily see it. And he must cause all the meadows and several pastures to be measured by acres, and thereby can one know the cost, and how much hay is necessary every year for the sustenance of the manor, and how much stock can be kept on the several pastures, and how much on the common....

  THE OFFICE OF BAILIFF

  The bailiff ought to be faithful and profitable, and a good husbandman, and also prudent, that he need not send to his lord or superior seneschal to have advice and instruction about everything connected with his baillie, unless it be an extraordinary matter, or of great danger; for a bailiff is worth little in time of need who knows nothing, and has nothing in himself without the instruction of another. The bailiff ought to rise every morning and survey the woods, corn, meadows, and pastures, and see what damage may have been done. And he ought to see that the ploughs are yoked in the morning, and unyoked at the right time, so that they may do their proper ploughing every day, as much as they can and ought to do by the measured perch. And he must cause the land to be marled, folded, manured, improved, and amended as his knowledge may approve, for the good and bettering of the manor. He ought to see how many measured acres the boon-tenants and customary-tenants ought to plough yearly, and how many the ploughs of the manor ought to till, and so he may lessen the surplus of the cost. And he ought to see and know how many acres of meadow the customary-tenants ought to mow and make, and how many acres of corn the boon-tenants and customary-tenants ought to reap and carry, and thereby he can see how many acres of meadow remain to be mowed, and how many acres of corn remain to be reaped for money, so that nothing shall be wrongfully paid for. And he ought to forbid any provost or bedel or hayward or any other servant of the manor to ride on, or lend, or ill-treat the cart-horses or others. And he ought to see that the horses and oxen and all the stock are well kept, and that no other animals graze in or eat their pasture....

  THE OFFICE OF PROVOST

  The provost ought to be elected and presented by the common consent of the township, as the best husbandman and the best approver among them. And he must see that all the servants of the court rise in the morning to do their work, and that the ploughs be yoked in time, and the lands well ploughed and cropped, and turned over, and sown with good and clean seed, as much as they can stand. And he ought to see that there be a good fold of wooden hurdles on the demesne, strewed within every night to improve the land....

  Let no provost remain over a year as provost, if he be not proved most profitable and faithful in his doings, and a good husbandman. Each provost ought every year to account with his bailiff, and tally the works and customs commuted in the manor, whereby he can surely answer in money for the surplus in the account, for the money for customs is worth as much as rent....

  THE OFFICE OF HAYWARD

  The hayward ought to be an active and sharp man, for he must, early and late, look after and go round and keep the woods, corn, and meadows and other things belonging to his office, and he ought to make attachments and approvements faithfully, and make the delivery by pledge before the provost, and deliver them to the bailiff to be heard. And he ought to sow the lands, and be over the ploughers and harrowers at the time of each sowing. And he ought to make all the boon-tenants and customary-tenants who are bound and accustomed to come, do so, to do the work they ought to do. And in haytime he ought to be over the mowers, the making, and the carrying, and in August assemble the reapers and the boon-tenants and the labourers and see that the corn be properly and cleanly gathered; and early and late watch so that nothing be stolen or eaten by beasts or spoilt....

  THE OFFICE OF PLOUGHMEN

  The ploughmen ought to be men of intelligence, and ought to know how to sow, and how to repair and mend broken ploughs and harrows, and to till the land well, and crop it rightly; and they ought to know also how to yoke and drive the oxen, without beating or hurting them, and they ought to forage them well, and look well after the forage that it be not stolen nor carried off; and they ought to keep them safely in meadows and several pastures, and other beasts which are found therein they ought to impound....

  THE OFFICE OF WAGGONERS

  The waggoner ought to know his trade, to keep the horses and curry them, and to load and carry without danger to his horses, that they may not be overloaded or overworked, or overdriven, or hurt, and he must know how to mend his harness and the gear of the waggon. And the bailiff and provost ought to see and know how many times the waggoners can go in a day to carry marl or manure, or hay or corn, or timber or firewood, without great stress; and as many times as they can go in a day, the waggoners must answer for each day at the end of the week....

  THE OFFICE OF COWHERD

  The cowherd ought to be skilful, knowing his business and keeping his cows well, and foster the calves well from time of weaning. And he must see that he has fine bulls and large and of good breed pastured with the cows, to mate when they will. And that no cow be milked or suckle her calf after Michaelmas, to make cheese of rewain; for this milking and this rewain make the cows lose flesh and become weak, and will make them mate later another year, and the milk is better and the cow poorer....

  And every night the cowherd shall put the cows and other beasts in the fold during the season, and let the fold be well strewed with litter or fern, as is said above, and he himself shall lie each night with his cows....

  THE OFFICE OF SWINEHERD

  The swineherd ought to be on those manors where swine can be sustained and kept in the forest, or in woods, or waste, or in marshes, without sustenance from the grange; and if the swine can be kept with little sustenance from the grange during hard frost, then must a pigsty be made in a marsh or wood, where the swine may be night and day....

  THE OFFICE OF SHEPHERD

  Each shepherd ought to find good pledges to answer for his doings and for good and faithful service, although he be companion to the miller. And he must cover his fold and enclose it with hurdles and mend it within and without, and repair the hurdles and make them. And he ought to sleep in the fold, he and his dog; and he ought to pasture his sheep well, and keep them in forage, and watch them well, so that they be not killed or destroyed by dogs or stolen or lost or changed, nor let them pasture in moors or dry places or bogs, to get sickness and disease for lack of guard. No shepherd ought to leave his sheep to go to fairs, or markets, or wrestling matches, or wakes, or to the tavern, without taking leave or asking it, or without putting a good keeper in his place to keep the sheep, that no harm may arise from his fault. ...

  THE OFFICE OF DAIRYMAID

  The dairymaid ought to be faithful and of good repute, and keep herself clean, and ought to know her business and all that belongs to it. She ought not to allow any under-dairymaid or an
other to take or carry away milk, or butter, or cream, by which the cheese shall be less and the dairy impoverished. And she ought to know well how to make cheese and salt cheese, and she ought to save and keep the vessels of the dairy, that it need not be necessary to buy new ones every year....

  The dairymaid ought to help to winnow the corn when she can be present, and she ought to take care of the geese and hens and answer for the returns and keep and cover the fire, that no harm arise from lack of guard.

  From Seneschaucie, trans. E. Lamond (London, New York: Long-mans Green, 1890).

  The Peasant’s Life

  WILLIAM LANGLAND

  Fourteenth century

  “Can you serve,” he said, “or sing in churches,

  Or cock hay in my harvest, or handle a hay-fork,

  Mow or mound it or makes sheaves or bindings,

  Reap, or be an head reaper, and rise early,

  Or have an horn and be an hayward, and be out till

  morning,

  And keep my corn in my croft from pickers and stealers?

  Or make shoes, or sew cloth, or tend sheep or cattle,

  Or make hedges, or harrow, or drive geese, or be swineherd?

  Or can you work at any craft which the commune calls for,

  To be means of livelihood to the bed-ridden?”

  “I have no penny,” said Piers, “to buy pullets,