The Portable Medieval Reader

by James Bruce Ross

  St. Cosmas on the right side with a box in one hand and with a crown on his head. St. Damian similarly on the left side. In the middle is an image of a pretty woman, sitting on a high seat, a lectern with an open book, holding her right hand on the book, in her left a box, a crown on her head, a verse above her: Medicine. At the sides on the right near St. Cosmas, Avicenna, holding in his hand the definition of medicine, in the first canon, on the other side near and behind St. Damian, Johannicius, saying in verse: “Medicine is divided into two parts, as in Johannicius, etc.”

  THE ART OF WRITING

  The image of a little old man, sitting, having in his right hand a strainer and in the other an open witten book.

  Two are disputing at the same time, between whom stands written: Sophists.

  The image of a school teacher, having a rod in one hand and a branch in the other; before him sit his pupils.

  Also a scribe writing.

  Also a smith, having a book in one hand, in the other a pair of tongs and a hammer.

  SACRED THEOLOGY

  The image of a very beautiful woman, sitting on a throne, a royal crown on her head, under which is the fillet of a bishop, having a sceptre in the right hand, an apple in the left, with flowing hair, a book before her lying open on a lectern.

  St. Gregory sits on a throne, a book lying open on the lectern, a long staff with a cross in the other hand.

  St. Jerome, shown as a cardinal, sitting on a bishop’s chair, writing on a book lying on a lectern. In the other hand he holds an open book on his lap.

  St. Ambrose and St. Augustine, in the guise of bishops.

  These four doctors are located in the four corners, a woman in the middle; behind the doctors stand, in one part a cardinal with certain monks, in the other a bishop in a chasuble, likewise accompanied by certain monks and students, having books in their hands.

  Below, under the queen is depicted a fountain in a greensward, surrounded by a wall, from which come rivulets watering the greensward, above which is the verse: “Theology is the source and origin of all virtues.”

  Two very beautiful images in the guise of women are depicted, who sit together in a high and elevated place, grasping each other’s hands. The one on the left, in truth, holds a sceptre. On their heads they wear golden crowns. The one on the right has the moon under her feet and there stands written: Civil Law. The one on the left has the sun under her feet and there is written: Canon Law. Standing around are teachers in doctoral and black gowns, old and young, birettas on their heads, suitably clad in long robes. In the first place are two figures, placed before the others, on each side of those; each has an apple in his right hand and a closed book in the left.

  From Quellenbuch zur Kunstgeschichte, J. Schlosser, ed.; trans. J.B.R.

  The Identity of Individual Artists

  HOW A CARPENTER GAVE THANKS FOR HIS CURE (LATE ELEVENTH CENTURY)

  [A certain one of the parishioners of the village of Isigny, in the district of Bayeux] confessing and weeping for the guilt of his sins, was borne to Coutances on a litter, a priest accompanying him, and was carried, misshapen, before the altar; and although weakened by suffering and crying aloud, nevertheless, the mercy of God intervening, he was made whole again in his entire body, on that same night which dawned on Sunday. On the following day, which is the second day of the week, he besought the chamberlain, Lord Peter, the deacon and bursar of the church, that he should order an axe to be given him so that he could labour with the other carpenters on the work of the church. When this was done, he worked with the others both that whole and the following week, cleverly and tastefully on the [wooden] window frames of the panes which are called capsilia and which were made in those days. After this was completed, when the aforesaid chamberlain had offered him freely a suitable and generous payment of money for his labour, he refused it completely, surrendering himself to the Virgin Mary and [saying] that he would be one of the bond serfs of that church, and that he would pay annually, as long as he lived, to the same church the tax on his own head. After this for a long time he devoutly took part in the special feast days of that same glorious mother of God, Mary.

  HOW A SERF ACQUIRED FREEDOM BY HIS ART, C. 1100

  A certain man, by name Fulco, endowed with the art of the painter, came to the chapter of St. Aubin [of Angers] and there made the following agreement before the Abbot Girard and the whole convent: he would paint the whole monastery of theirs and whatever they should order him to do, and he would make glass windows. And thereupon he became their brother and in addition he was made a free man of the abbot; and the abbot and monks gave him one acre and a half of vineyard in fee and a house, on these terms, that he should hold them in his lifetime, and after his death they should go back to the saint, unless he should have a son who would know the art of his father and hence could serve St. Aubin. At this act there were present these laymen: Reginald Grandis and Warin the cellarer....

  From Recueil de textes relatifs à l‘histoire de l’architecture en France, XIe et XIIe siècles, V. Mortet, ed. (Paris: A. Picard, 1911); trans. J.B.R.

  Abbots as Builders

  St. Albans, thirteenth century

  RELYING, then, on the advice of these two brothers, and sustained by their support, his conscience pricking him (for he had received from his predecessor, Abbot Warin, as told above, one hundred marks, put aside and designated for the work of the church), Abbot John [1195-1214] demolished completely the wall of the front of our church, made up of old tiles and indissoluble mortar.

  Little expecting, however, that mockery of which mention is made in the gospel, namely, that he who is about to build should compute the expenses which are necessary to finish it, lest, after he has laid the foundation, being unable to finish it, all begin to mock him, saying, “This man began to build, and he was not able to finish,” the abbot began both to haul wood and to pile up a lot of stones, together with columns and boards. When he had assembled the chosen masons, many in number, over whom stood Master Hugh Goldcliff (a deceitful and lying man, indeed, but an excellent workman), and the trench had been dug and extended, in a short time he spent the hundred marks mentioned, as well as many more, without counting the daily allowances, not a small amount, and the wall did not yet reach the level of its foundation. It happened that by the perfidious advice of the aforesaid Hugh, after carvings had been added that were inappropriate and trifling and much too expensive, before half the work rose to the height of a house-story, the abbot was tired and began to grow weary of it and fearful, and the work languished. And since the walls lay uncovered in the winter weather, the stones, being fragile; broke into bits, and the wall, looking like a tumbled-down ruin, collapsed to such an extent under its own weight, together with its columns, bases, and capitals, that the fragments of images and flowers drew laughter and jeers from the observers. Then the workmen in despair departed, and their wages were not paid to them.

  The abbot, nevertheless, not despairing on this account, appointed as custodian of the work Brother Gilbert of Eversolt; and he contributed to the work one sheaf from every acre of sown land. And this lasted from the time it was first given (that is, in the third year of his prelacy) throughout his whole life, namely, seventeen years, and into the life of the following abbot about ten years. That unfortunate work, however, never showed any visible growth, and not being completed as he desired in the time of Abbot John, his heart could not rejoice, so that he grieved inconsolably. He added, therefore, many gifts of gold and silver, if perchance he could thus advance the work. He had it [the work] preached throughout all the lands of St. Alban, and through many episcopal dioceses, and relics carried around, and by a certain clerk, by name Amphibalus (whom the Lord had raised from the dead after four days by the merits of Saints Alban and Amphibalus, so that to the miracles of these saints he might furnish testimony with the faith of an eye-witness), he collected quite a lot of money. But that unfortunate work absorbed it all, as the sea absorbs the rivers, and it still had not made any pro
gress.

  After the years had passed by vainly, so far as that work was concerned, and Brother Gilbert Eversolt had died, the custody of that work, dying and languishing, fell into the hands of Brother Gilbert of Sisseverne who held it for about thirty years. Having spent the aforesaid contributions on it, in his whole time he added scarcely two feet to the whole.

  With eyes averted, though with heavy heart, the aforesaid Abbot John turned his attention to other works by happier advice, leaving untouched the contributions assigned to the first work, as we have said. And, when the old refectory had been demolished, which was ruinous and dark, he began a most elegant new one which he deserved [to see] completed happily in his lifetime and to dine within joyfully with the brothers.

  Raised to better hopes, he had the old dormitory, ruinous and collapsing from age, completely torn down, together with its outbuildings, namely, the latrine, and a most handsome new one built in its place, and finished absolutely to perfection. For the construction of these two noble buildings the convent gave up its wine for the continuous course of fifteen years; but because he [the abbot] abandoned the work of the church, he never deserved to see the completion of it in his lifetime....

  Also to the honour of the same Abbot John should belong what is known to have been laudably done by his monks. For in the time of Abbot John, by the industry and the lawful efforts of Prior Raymond, the brother of Roger of Park, the cellarer, there was made a great frontal partly of metal and partly of wood, executed with the greatest artistry, which is before the high altar in our church. Also two tablets of silver gilt, on one of which a cross with a crucifix, and Mary and John, are represented; on the other God in majesty with the four evangelists is cut in the most elegant engraving by the skilful work and diligence of Brother Walter of Colchester who, through the persuasion and prompting of Brother Ralph Gubiun, took the habit of religion in our church, by a fortunate omen.

  Now by the hand of his [Walter’s] brother, William, a painted panel before the altar of the Blessed Virgin with a superaltar carved and a cross placed upon it, and a painting above and on the side, was very skilfully made (the same Ralph supplying the things necessary for this); also all the frontals before the altars of our church, namely, of St. John, St. Stephen, St. Amphibalus, and St. Benedict. Also by the hand of his brother and disciple, Master Simon, the painter, the frontals of St. Peter and St. Michael. By the hand also of Brother Richard, nephew of the aforesaid Master William, and son of Master Simon, the frontal of St. Thomas, in two sections above and below, partly by his and partly by his father’s hand, was executed. The frontal also of St. Benedict, with many other carvings and paintings, by the labour of the aforesaid (although it was not in the time of Abbot John but later), were made for the honour and the decoration of the house of God.

  We have considered, therefore, that these things. should be commended to immortal writing and memory so that there may flourish with blessings among us, not ungrateful, the recollection of those who by their zealous labour left after them the works of our church so adorned. . . .

  At first he [Abbot William, 1214-35] finished the dormitory most suitably (as well as the private place belonging to it, as said above) with beds of oaken material, and in it he assembled the convent. Moreover, in his time, the two wings of the church were strengthened in the roof with oak, well bound together and joined by small beams; these consumed by rot and worms had previously admitted an abundance of rain. The spire of the tower, which rises like a great scaffolding, was constructed out of the best material well joined together and raised much higher than the old one which was threatening ruin. And all these, not without great expense, were covered with lead. They were carried out in fact by the diligence and industry of Richard of Thidenhanger, a lay monk of ours, and chamberlain, without neglecting or detracting from his office; they should be ascribed, however, to the abbot, out of reverence. For he is the doer, by whose authority anything is known to be done.

  The abbot himself, however, after the death of that Richard of blessed memory, had the same tower uncovered because it had been improperly covered, and adding not a small quantity of lead, had it reroofed properly and durably. Decorations were added on the sides, namely, eight rectilinear pilasters, extending from the top to the wall so that the tower would seem more clearly octagonal; all this was done at his own expense, by the persuasion and instigation of Lord Matthew, then bailiff and keeper of the seal, called “of Cambridge.” This was known because he was appointed overseer and adviser and diligent custodian of that work.... And these lines which are popularly called aristae wonderfully strengthened the tower and adorned what was strengthened and, besides, more surely kept out the rain; this tower previously, with the eight sides undistinguishable, displayed a form which was rounded, plain and meagre, harmonizing poorly and unsuitably with the wall.

  And the front work of the same church, after very destructive ruin, the Abbot William, moved to pity and compassion, because it had dragged out in such a wearisome delay, took upon his shoulders to be carried out. This, in a short time, with a roof of selected material, with timbers and beams, with rafters, and with glass windows executed perfectly, he joined to the old work, suitably covered over with lead.

  He also repaired the stone work with glass panes of those windows which are in the great wall above the place where the great missal lies and where the lesser clerics usually sing matins and the hours; moreover, he completed the stone work with glass panes of many other windows in the wings of the church, north and south, with the aid of the custodian of the altar of St. Amphibalus. And so the church, illuminated by the benefit of the new light, seemed as if made new.

  Also, in his time, when Master Walter of Colchester, then sacristan (an incomparable painter and sculptor) had completed a rood loft in the middle of the church, with its great cross, and Mary and John, and with other carvings and suitable decorations, at the expense of the sacristy but by the diligence of his own labour, that Abbot William solemnly removed the shrine with the relics of St. Amphibalus and his companions, from the place where it had formerly been located (namely, beside the high altar next to the shrine of St. Alban), towards the north, to the place which is enclosed in the middle of the church by an iron lattice-work grill where a very handsome altar had been constructed with a richly painted frontal and super-altar....

  Moreover, to the increase of the fame of that same Abbot William it should, I think, be remembered that he constructed some very noble structures about the high altar, with a certain beam representing the story of St. Alban, which surmounts all that work of artistry. This most splendid work was executed, not without great and laborious zeal and zealous labour, by Master Walter of Colchester whom we have often mentioned in praise; the abbot, however, freely gave ample funds for this purpose.

  From Gesta abbatum sancti Albani, H. T. Riley, ed., Rolls Series, vol. 28; trans. J.B.R.

  A Painter on His Craft

  CENNINO CENNINI

  1370

  SO THEN, either as a labour of love for all those who feel within them a desire to understand; or as a means of embellishing these fundamental theories with some jewel, that they may be set forth royally, without reserve; offering to these theories whatever little understanding God has granted me, as an unimportant practising member of the profession of painting: I, Cennino, the son of Andrea Cennini of Colle di Val d’Elsa (I was trained in this profession for twelve years by my master, Agnolo di Taddeo of Florence; he learned this profession from Taddeo, his father; and his father was christened under Giotto, and was his follower for four-and-twenty years; and that Giotto changed the profession of painting from Greek back into Latin, and brought it up to date; and he had more finished craftsmanship than anyone has had since), to minister to all those who wish to enter the profession, I will make note of what was taught me by the aforesaid Agnolo, my master, and of what I have tried out with my own hand; first invoking [the aid of] High Almighty God, the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost; then [of] that most beloved
advocate of all sinners, Virgin Mary; and of Saint Luke, the evangelist, the first Christian painter; and of my advocate, Saint Eustace; and, in general, of all the Saints of Paradise, AMEN....

  It is not without the impulse of a lofty spirit that some are moved to enter this profession, attractive to them through natural enthusiasm. Their intellect will take delight in drawing, provided their nature attracts them to it of themselves, without any master’s guidance, out of loftiness of spirit. And then, through this delight, they come to want to find a master; and they bind themselves to him with respect for authority, undergoing an apprenticeship in order to achieve perfection in all this. There are those who pursue it, because of poverty and domestic need, for profit and enthusiasm for the profession too; but above all these are to be extolled the ones who enter the profession through a sense of enthusiasm and exalta tion. . . .

  The basis of the profession, the very beginning of all these manual operations, is drawing and painting. These two sections call for a knowledge of the following: how to work up or grind, how to apply size, to put on cloth, to gesso, to scrape the gessos and smooth them down, to model with gesso, to lay bole, to gild, to burnish; to temper, to lay in; to pounce, to scrape through, to stamp or punch; to mark out, to paint, to embellish, and to varnish, on panel or ancona. To work on a wall you have to wet down, to plaster, to true up, to smooth off, to draw, to paint in fresco. To carry to completion in secco: to temper, to embellish, to finish on the wall. And let this be the schedule of the aforesaid stages which I, with what little knowledge I have acquired, will expound, section by section....