489.NASA, “Galaxy Evolution Explorer Launch,” press kit, April 2003, https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/press_kits/galex.pdf.
490.B. Cooke, interview by author, March 8, 2017.
491.B. Cooke, telephone interview by author, November 15, 2018.
492.NASA, “Juno Launch,” press kit, August 2011, https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/press_kits/JunoLaunch.pdf.
493.B. Goldstein, telephone interview by author, November 16, 2018.
494.B. Cooke, telephone interview by author, November 15, 2018.
495.T. Stern and S. DeLapp, “Techniques for Magnetic Cleanliness on Spacecraft Solar Arrays” (presentation, Second International Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, Providence, RI, 2004), https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2004-5581.
496.R. Pappalardo, telephone interview by author, December 21, 2018.
497.R. T. Pappalardo, “Europa Exploration” (presentation, Europa Clipper & SLS Partnerships Briefing, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC, January 24, 2014).
498.M. Smith, “Are the Days of NASA’s Science Flagship Missions Over?,” December 4, 2013, available at SpacePolicyOnline.com, https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/are-the-days-of-nasas-science-flagship-missions-over.
499.B. Pershing, “Frank Wolf to Retire After 17 Terms in Congress; N. Va. Seat Will Be a Prime Battleground in 2014,” Washington Post, December 17, 2013, https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/virginia-politics/frank-wolf-to-retire-after-17-terms-in-congress-northern-va-seat-to-be-a-battleground-in-2014/2013/12/17/712bb608-6749-11e3-a0b9-249bbb34602c_story.html.
500.E. Berger, “Love Planetary Science? Dying to Explore Europa’s Oceans? Meet the Man Who Can Make It Happen,” Houston Chronicle, December 20, 2013, https://blog.chron.com/sciguy/2013/12/love-planetary-science-dying-to-explore-europas-oceans-meet-the-man-who-can-make-it-happen.
501.L. Smith, Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2014 (Pub. L. 113–76), January 14, 2014.
502.C. Niebur, Investments in Europa Mission Concept Studies, 2010.
503.C. Bolden, email message to Europa stakeholders regarding Europa Clipper & SLS partnerships briefing, December 31, 2013.
504.C. Niebur, email message to author regarding directing MFB, December 6, 2018.
505.C. Niebur, personal journal entry, 2016.
506.Ibid.
507.Many thanks to Jim Green, the chief scientist of NASA, for patiently walking me through each slide of his presentation to the SIP. Ancillary details of the meeting come from the following interviews and documents:
J. Salute, telephone interview by author, October 25, 2018.
C. Niebur, telephone interview by author, October 19, 2018.
C. Niebur, personal journal entry, 2016.
J. Green, interview by author, May 16, 2017.
C. Niebur, interview by author, May 16, 2017.
J. Salute and C. Niebur, ongoing email messages to and from author, 2016–2019.
508.P. K. Dick and L. Sutin, The Shifting Realities of Philip K. Dick: Selected Literary and Philosophical Writings, 1st Vintage ed. (New York: Vintage Books, 1995).
509.I. Kant and I. Johnston, Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens: Or, an Essay on the Constitution and the Mechanical Origin of the Entire Structure of the Universe Based on Newtonian Principles (Arlington, VA: Richer Resources Publications, 2009).
510.I. Kant and M. J. Gregor, Critique of Practical Reason, rev. ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015).
511.A. Losch, “Kant’s Wager. Kant’s Strong Belief in Extra-Terrestrial Life, the History of This Question and Its Challenge for Theology Today,” International Journal of Astrobiology 15, no. 4 (2016): 261–70, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1473550416000112.
512.Kant and Gregor, Critique of Practical Reason.
513.2 Kings 19:35 (King James Version).
514.Daniel 10:5–6 (King James Version).
515.Luke 1:11–13 (King James Version).
516.Revelation 22:8–9 (King James Version).
517.Genesis 1:28 (King James Version).
518.Consolmagno and Mueller, Would You Baptize an Extraterrestrial?
519.C. Niebur, email message to author, August 5, 2016.
520.R. T. Pappalardo et al. “Does Europa Have a Subsurface Ocean? Evaluation of the Geological Evidence,” Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 104, no. e10 (1999): 24015–55, https://doi.org/10.1029/1998JE000628.
521.R. T. Pappalardo et al., “Geological Evidence for Solid-State Convection in Europa’s Ice Shell,” Nature 391, no. 6665 (1998): 365–68, https://doi.org/10.1038/34862.
522.J. Salute, telephone interview by author, October 25, 2018.
523.L. Prockter, email message to the Europa science team regarding thanks and goodbye, June 25, 2014. This was sent to the entire science definition team.
524.C. Niebur, email message to the Europa science team regarding thanks and goodbye, June 25, 2014. This was sent to the entire science definition team as part of an email chain with Louise.
525.C. Dreier, “[Updated] To Europa! . . . Slowly. First Impressions of NASA’s New Budget Request,” Planetary Society (blog), March 7, 2014, http://www.planetary.org/blogs/casey-dreier/2014/0304-first-impressions-of-the-2015-nasa-budget-request.html.
526.R. Pappalardo, email message to the Europa science team regarding Culberson’s news, November 20, 2014. This correspondence was sent to the internal pre-project science team.
527.A general narrative was constructed from interviews with:
C. Niebur, telephone interview by author, October 19, 2018.
J. Salute, telephone interview by author, October 28, 2018.
L. Prockter and R. Pappalardo, interview by author, October 9, 2018.
R. Pappalardo, telephone interview by author, December 21, 2018.
L. Prockter, interview by author, February 6, 2018.
528.R. Pappalardo, email message to author, December 20, 2018. Robert Pappalardo provided photographs of the document signing, celebration, and key players described in the text.
529.R. Pappalardo, telephone interview by author, December 21, 2018.
See also R. Pappalardo, email message to author, December 20, 2018.
See also R. Pappalardo, email message to author regarding the monolith, December 20, 2018. Robert Pappalardo provided photographs of the Monolith’s delivery and relocation.
530.ThinkGeek, “Monolith Action Figure,” accessed October 11, 2019, http://www.thinkgeek.com/stuff/41/monolith-action-figure.shtml.
531.R. Pappalardo, email message to E. Rios regarding monolith status report, June 13, 2015.
532.E. Rios, email message to R. Pappalardo regarding monolith status report, June 20, 2015.
See also E. Rios, email message to R. Pappalardo regarding monolith status report, June 24, 2015.
533.A. C. Clarke, 2001: A Space Odyssey (New York: Penguin Books, 2016).
I have one of those key chains sitting on my desk, courtesy of Robert Pappalardo. The description is accurate.
534.R. Pappalardo, PSG1 Opening (QuickTime movie, JPL, 2015).
535.Skeletons and More, email message to R. Pappalardo regarding Skeletons and More aged left femur bone order, June 19, 2015.
Original receipt provided by Robert Pappalardo.
536.R. T. Pappalardo, W. B. McKinnon, and K. Khurana, eds., Europa (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2009), 220.
537.S. Katterhorn, interview by author, March 20, 2018.
538.S. A. Kattenhorn and L. M. Prockter, “Evidence for Subduction in the Ice Shell of Europa,” Nature Geoscience 7 (2014): 762–7.
539.L. Prockter, interview by author, February 6, 2018.
Index
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aerocapture, 216–217
Aerojet Rocketdyne, 309
Allan Hills 84001, 292–295
Alliant Techsystems, 309
announcement of opportunity (
AO), 355–356, 364–365, 370, 379
Antarctica, 283–284
APL. See Applied Physics Laboratory
Apollo space program
anniversary celebration for, 44–45
design of, 163, 217
geology and, 29–30, 44
Greeley and, 175–178
moon landing transcripts, 30, 239, 403n43
von Braun and, 56–57
Applied Physics Laboratory (APL)
Clark and, 34
Europa flagship competition and, 183, 185–186, 203–205
Europa Habitability Mission and, 320
Europa Multiple Flyby Mission and, 379
Ganymede study and, 92–93
JPL partnership, 320, 346, 379
New Horizons and, 148–150
Archimedes, 402n33
Arctic exhibit, 189
Ares rockets, 300–301, 303–304, 309, 312, 314
Aristarchus of Samos, 22, 402n33
Armstrong, Neil, 30, 177, 239, 344, 403n43
Arvidson, Ray, 105
Auburn Creed, 144–146
Augustine, Norman, 302
Augustine Commission report, 302–303, 307
Austin, Wanda, 302
Bagenal, Fran, 11, 35, 98–101, 266–267, 277
Baker, Howard, 61
Ballistic Missile Defense Organization, 71
Barr, Amy, 277
Bass, Lance, 296–298
Batygin, Konstantin, 399n27
Bentley, Charlie, 283
Berner, John “Bunsen,” 4–5
Bible, 373–374
Bills, Bruce, 277
Blaney, Diana, 277
Blankenship, Don
background, 181, 387
on Clipper name, 324
on Europa’s ice shell, 378
Europa Tiger Team and, 276, 277, 280–285
Blue Origin, 302
Boeing, 309
Bolden, Charles, 301–302, 303, 357–361, 366–370
Bush (H.W.) administration, 71, 140, 300, 440–441n389
Bush (W.) administration, 82–83, 205, 295, 300
Bush, George H.W., 440n389
California Institute of Technology, 12, 61
California Space Institute, 68–69
Callisto, 23–24, 92, 253
Carter administration, 53
Casani, John, 128, 129–130, 131, 163–164, 235
Cassini Data Analysis Program, 95–96
Cassini orbiter
data collection by, 93–94, 129, 225, 322, 342–343, 368–369
data collection issues, 210–215, 229–231
design and launch of, 157–158, 229–230
Europa mission comparison, 340, 342–343, 368–369
European Space Agency and, 203
funding for, 129, 140–141, 203, 229–230
nuclear launch of, 159–162, 193
overview, 12, 98, 108–109, 233
project management, 228–231, 245, 247–248, 381–382
Ceres, 147, 350
Challenger program, 47, 66, 205, 289
Charon, 169
Chyba, Christopher, 181, 302
Clark, Karla
background, 155–158, 162–163
career trajectory, 422n216
departure of, 250
Europa Explorer and, 92, 155–156, 164–165, 186–187, 422n216
Europa Jupiter System Mission and, 204, 248–250
on European Space Agency, 202–203
management style of, 164–165, 181–182, 199–200, 247–248
post-Europa-mission career, 234–236, 432n314
Clarke, Arthur C., 27–29, 371
Clinton, Bill, 294
Clinton administration, 71–72, 162
Clipper design. See Europa Clipper Cold War, 67–75, 140–141, 411n111, 440n389
Collins, Geoff, 46, 168
Columbia space shuttle, 205, 295, 301
Comet Rendezvous and Asteroid Flyby mission (CRAF), 141
competition, for flagship destinations. See Quad Studies
Connerney, Jack, 277–278
Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act (2013), 326–327
Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act (2014), 358
Consolmagno, G., 401–402n32
Constellation Program, 83, 205, 300–304, 307
Cooke, Brian, 349–354
Copernicus, Nicolaus, 22
Copernicus telescope, 77–78
Cosimo II de’ Medici, 22
The Cosmic Connection (Sagan), 218–219
Cosmic Vision 2015–2025 mission competition, 254–256
Critique of Practical Reason (Kant), 372
Culberson, John
background, 110–116, 126–128
Europa Multiple Flyby Mission funding from, 379
Europa support from, 206–207, 327–329, 331, 333–334, 358–359, 362–363
on extraterrestrial life, 375
JIMO support from, 129–132
at JPL, 124, 127–131
Katy road expansion project, 117–124, 205–206
Curiosity (rover), 260, 273, 330
Das Marsprojekt (von Braun), 55–56
Dawn (spacecraft), 147, 350
Decadal Survey (2001/2003), 83–87, 134–135, 207
Decadal Survey (2011/2013), 232, 252–253, 257–260, 263, 265–275, 279–280, 367–369
Deep Space Network, 49, 54–55, 61, 66, 74, 213
DeLay, Tom, 115–116
Destination Moon (film), 237–239
Dick, Philip K., 371
Discovery program, 73, 146–147, 151–152, 184, 190, 257, 273
Drake, Frank, 221, 244
Druyan, Ann, 244
Eagle moon landing, 30, 44, 163, 239, 344, 403n43. See also Apollo space program
Elachi, Charles
Culberson’s meeting with, 128
at Europa NASA briefing, 359, 361
Flight Projects building design by, 264–265
management style of, 228–229, 299, 346
Emanuel, Rahm, 300
Enceladus
Europa comparison, 340, 342–343
geology of, 94–95, 322, 338, 340
mission competition, 88, 93–94, 95, 225
as priority target, 209–210
TandEM mission development, 202
Titan mission and, 191
Enceladus (myth), 414–416n146
engineering elegance, 352–353
Europa
Culberson’s interest in, 129–132. See also Culberson, John
discovery of, 22–23
Galileo and, 50–52
geology of, 6, 24–26, 323, 378, 385–387, 398–399n23
ice lineament research, 165–169, 377
life potential on, 27, 87–88, 130–131, 371–372, 375–376
magnetic field of, 50–52, 393–394nn1–2
missions, 2–3, 422n216. See also Europa Clipper; Europa Explorer; Europa Habitability Mission; Europa Jupiter System Mission; Europa Multiple Flyby Mission; Europa Orbiter; Jupiter Europa Orbiter; Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter
as nonpriority destination, 208–210
ocean research, 34–35
Pappalardo’s book on, 169
plate tectonics, 165–169, 385–387, 389–390
as priority destination, 206–207, 211
radiation belt and, 368, 386–387
as setting for film and novels, 27–29
subsurface ocean on, 24–27, 51–52, 108, 130–131, 165, 206, 284–285, 377–378, 390, 398–399n23
water vapor plumes on, 337–343
Europa Clipper
design, 324–325, 331–334, 347–348, 367–368
funding and project costs, 331, 358, 360–361, 379
instruments for, 378–379, 380–381
Key Decision Point A, 379–380
leadership of, 387–388
monolith for, 382–383, 384–385
NASA’s name for, 377–378
redes
igns, 347–349, 353–354
SIP presentation on, 367–369
SLS rocket for, 342–343
team roster, 376–379, 387–389
Europa Explorer (Quad Studies)
final reports, 186–187
funding and project costs, 185–186
phase two: Europa Jupiter System Mission, 201–205, 224–226, 231–233, 277, 279. See also Jupiter Europa Orbiter
project management, 155–156, 200, 226–231
science definition team, 169–170, 179–182
Europa Geophysical Explorer, 86. See also Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter
Europa Habitability Mission
brainstorming session, 275–281, 284–286
funding, 328–331, 333–334, 358–359, 361–363
NASA briefing for, 355–363
project management, 344–349
redesigns, 352–354
SIP presentation, 363–370
SIP telecon, 366–370
SLS mission concept for, 315–316
split mission concept, 320–323. See also Europa Clipper
Europa Jupiter System Mission (EJSM), 204–205, 224–226, 229, 231–233, 277, 279. See also Jupiter Europa Orbiter
Europa Multiple Flyby Mission
funding, 379
instruments, 378–379, 380–381
Key Decision Point A, 379–380
monolith for, 382–383, 384–385
plate tectonics and, 387–388
project management, 387–388
team roster, 376–379, 387–389
Europa Orbiter
Clark’s involvement in, 422n216
funding and project costs, 17, 91
goal of, 16, 91
redesigns, 162–164
Europa Science Advisory Group, 333–334
European Space Agency, 54, 190, 202–203, 217, 254–256, 322–323
Explorers program, 62
extraterrestrial life, 27, 87–88, 130–131, 371–376
Fenton, Sara, 382
flagship mission competitors. See Quad Studies
F-1 engine, 312
Freedom (space station), 440n389
GALEX (Galaxy Evolution Explorer), 350
Galileo (spacecraft)
design, 131, 325
end of, 12, 95
Europa data from, 16, 393–394nn1–2
funding, 47, 53–54, 98
imaging campaigns, 9–11
imaging issues, 45–51, 405n59
journey of, 108
overview, 98, 108
project management, 178–179, 245
Galileo Galilei, 21–23, 402n32
Ganymede
competition for missions to, 52, 92, 109, 187, 191
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