transformation problem, 422, 444–46, 453–54, 461
Trémaux, Pierre, 396–97
race theory and, 412–13
Trier, Germany, 46, 84
Casino of, 24, 28–29, 41
Catholics of, 4–5, 10
French rule of, 7–13
Holy Shroud of, 10, 19–20
impoverishment of, 3–4
Jews of, 5–7, 10–13, 16–20
Napoleonic rule of, 9–13
Protestantism in, 15
Revolution of 1848 in, 15–16
Roman legacy of, 3–4
society of order practice of, 4–5
Trier News, 182
True Socialists, 164–65, 195, 204, 220, 228, 530
in Communist Manifesto, 212–13
Hess and, 164–65
Marx’s criticism of, 171–72, 181, 212–13
Trumpet Blast of the Last Judgment Against Hegel the Atheist and Anti-Christ, The (Bauer), 73
Twain, Mark, 536
Two Years in Paris (Ruge), 499
Tylor, Edward, 315
Uncovering the Scandals of the Cologne Communist Trial (Marx and Engels), 285
“Union of the Faithful with Christ, The” (Marx), 29–31
Unique Individual and His Property, The (Stirner), 166
United Diet, 194
United States, 111, 130, 185–86, 214, 258, 268, 285, 294, 312, 320, 323, 382, 449, 455, 535–36
recession of 1857 in, 523
Reconstruction policy in, 410
universal suffrage, 130, 307, 359, 365, 527
Urquhart, David, xvii, 306–7, 309–10, 312, 329, 333–34, 355, 435, 520, 532, 544, 556
use value, 427–28, 460
Utin, Nikolai, 510
Valdenaire, Viktor, 28
value:
exchange, 427–28, 460
labor theory of, 173, 427–30, 439, 444, 460–61, 537
use, 427–28, 460
“Value, Price and Profit” (Marx), 358–59
Vatke, Wilhelm, 52
Veltheim, Ferdinand von, 44, 48
Venedey, Jacob, 118, 328
Victoria, Queen of England, 503, 504
Virchow, Rudolf, xvii
Vogt, Karl, 239, 331, 339–40, 354, 364
Marx’s feud with, 332–37, 491–92
Volk, Das (The People), 330–32, 337
Voltaire, 19, 91
“Wage Labor and Capital” (Marx), 242
Walkley, Mary Anne, 431–32
Wallachia, 117–18
Waterloo, Battle of, 53
Wealth of Nations (Smith), 443
Weerth, Georg, 159–60
Weitling, Wilhelm, 106, 159–60, 182, 227
Marx’s clash with, 177, 179–81
Weltheim, Werner von, 58
West German News, 240, 278
Westphalen, Caroline Heubel von, 43–44, 110–11, 121–22
Westphalen, Edgar von, 41, 44, 55–56, 57, 76, 111
Westphalen, Ferdinand von, 44, 75, 303
Westphalen, Johann Ludwig von, 30, 41–46, 96, 288
Westphalen, Lisette von Veltheim von, 43–44
Westphalen, Ludwig von, 68
Westphalia, Kingdom of, 43, 159, 223
Westphalian Steamboat, 159–60, 165, 183, 188
Weydemeyer, Joseph, 186–87, 188, 246, 252–55, 263, 271, 286, 356
What is Property? (Proudhon), 163–64
What Is the Third Estate? (Sièyes), 164
Whig Party, British, 305–6, 310–11, 404, 556
Wilhelm I, King of Prussia, 324, 337, 376, 528, 537
Willich, August, xvi, 241, 246–47, 265–73, 278, 284, 335, 478, 515
Wolff, Ferdinand, 264
Wolff, Wilhelm, 186–87, 196, 217, 246, 277, 332, 334, 350, 465, 481, 518
women’s rights, 474–75, 476
Workers’ News (Arbeiterzeitung), 548
working class, 119, 125–26, 144, 149, 161, 195, 211, 214, 391, 404, 431, 526–27
alienation of, 145–46
Marx’s relationship with, 492–93
misery of, 433–36
political party idea and, 506–7
racism and, 411
World War I, 207, 466, 540
World War II, 141, 555
Wyttenbach, Friedrich Anton, 28
Wyttenbach, Johann Heinrich, 8, 16, 27, 30, 32–33
Young Germany, 60–61, 207
Young Hegelians, 60–69, 75, 88, 112, 119, 123, 155, 162–64, 166–67, 171, 392, 560
atheism of, 13, 63, 75, 93, 137–38, 144, 392, 465
Free Men controversy and, 93
Jewish emancipation debate and, 127–28, 129
leftward movement of, 64
as lost generation, 64
Marx’s first encounter with, 65–66
Prussian state and, 63–64
radicalism of, 61
Rhineland News and, 79, 82, 83, 91–93, 95
rise of positivism and, 390
theology of, 61–62
Young Italy, 60
Zasulich, Vera, 533, 534
Zedlitz, Count von, 345–46
Zollverein (tariff union), 15, 102
About the Author
JONATHAN SPERBER is the Curators’ Professor of History at the University of Missouri. Author of numerous works on the history of nineteenth-century Europe, including The European Revolutions, 1848–1851 and Rhineland Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the Revolution of 1848–1849, he lives with his family in Columbia, Missouri.
Picture Section
Johann Ludwig von Westphalen, Marx’s childhood mentor and father of his future bride.
(BUNDESARCHIV BERLIN-LICHTERFELDE)
Jenny von Westphalen, Marx’s future bride, in the early 1830s, about the time of her abortive engagement to a Prussian lieutenant.
(INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL HISTORY, AMSTERDAM)
Marx as a student at the University of Bonn in 1836. Note that he is wearing the uniform of the German student fraternities.
(BPK, BERLIN / ART RESOURCE, NY)
It was at the University of Berlin, shown here in the 1820s, that Marx became acquainted with the theories of Hegel, which would inform his thought for the rest of his life.
(BPK, BERLIN / ART RESOURCE, NY)
G. W. F. Hegel (1770–1831). The great philosopher’s ideas had distinctly radical religious and political implications, which he very carefully ignored.
(BPK, BERLIN / ART RESOURCE, NY)
Eduard Gans (1797–1839). The University of Berlin professor of legal history, perhaps Hegel’s leading disciple, and a considerable intellectual influence on Marx, might well have become the latter’s mentor, had Gans not died of a stroke at a young age.
(BPK, BERLIN / ART RESOURCE, NY)
Friedrich Engels in the early 1840s. “I look so dreadfully young,” was his own opinion of his appearance then.
(INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL HISTORY, AMSTERDAM)
Bruno Bauer (1809–1882). Bauer, a difficult person and controversial figure, even among the radical Young Hegel-ians, was Marx’s mentor, until the two came to disagree about the political implications of their interpretations of Hegel.
(INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL HISTORY, AMSTERDAM)
Ludwig Feuerbach (1804–1872). Feuerbach did develop Hegel’s theories in a materialist direction, but his intellec-tual influence on Marx has often been exaggerated.
(ARCHIV DER SOZIALEN DEMOKRATIE DER FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG)
The Rhenish city of Cologne, shown in this 1845 print as a bustling commercial metropolis, was the center of Marx’s political activity during the decade 1842–52.
(RHEINISCHES BILDARCHIV DER STADT KÖLN)
October 1848, barricades with the Cologne Cathedral in the background. Marx’s revolutionary efforts in 1848–49 attacking Prussian rule in Cologne and the Rhineland rather overshadowed his attempts at working-class organization or advocacy of communism.
(RHEINISCHES BILDARCHIV D
ER STADT KÖLN)
Trier in 1822: lots of Roman ruins and medieval buildings but little urban substance.
(STADTMUSEUM SIMEONSTIFT TRIER)
At the Cologne Communist Trial of 1852, almost all Marx’s remaining supporters in Germany were either convicted and imprisoned or forced out of politics. Among the defendants, in the box on the left-hand side of the picture, the physician Roland Daniels is standing at the back, next to the gendarme, and Hermann “Red” Becker is standing in the front row, speaking.
(RHEINISCHES BILDARCHIV DER STADT KÖLN)
Moses Hess (1812–1875). An important source of Marx’s ideas, Hess aspired to be a communist political and intellectual leader, but his dreamy and ineffectual personality made him no rival to the more energetic and determined Marx.
(ARCHIV DER SOZIALEN DEMOKRATIE DER FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG)
Karl Grün (1817–1887). The leading communist in the German-speaking world during the 1840s, Grün replied sharply and effectively to Marx’s attacks on him.
(ADOLF HINRICHSEN, ED., DAS DEUTSCHE SCHRIFTSTELLER-ALBUM [BERLIN: VERLAG VON WILHELM FRIEDRICH ASCH, 1885])
August Willich (1810–1878). The Prussian army officer turned communist, shown here in his Union Army uniform of the U.S. Civil War, posed as a radical man of action, contrasting himself to Marx, the theoretical intellectual.
(ARCHIV DER SOZIALEN DEMOKRATIE DER FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG)
Wilhelm Liebknecht (1826–1900). Marx’s chief advocate in Germany from the 1860s onward, Liebknecht was often regarded (and denounced) as just carrying out Marx’s orders. In fact, he had a mind of his own and disagreed with his mentor about important political decisions, which often frustrated and angered Marx.
(ARCHIV DER SOZIALEN DEMOKRATIE DER FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG)
Ferdinand Lassalle (1825–1864), seen in this photograph as both agitator and dandy.
(BPK, BERLIN / ART RESOURCE, NY)
David Urquhart (1805–1877). The eccentric, pro-Moslem British politician was an important influence on Marx, who shared his vehemently anti-Russian sentiments and his suspicions of the British prime minister Lord Palmerston.
(GERTRUDE ROBINSON AND DAVID URQUHART, SOME CHAPTERS IN THE LIFE OF A VICTORIAN KNIGHT-ERRANT OF JUSTICE AND LIBERTY [OXFORD: BLACKWELL, 1920])
Friedrich Engels in 1857, the respectable and affluent businessman.
(ARCHIV DER SOZIALEN DEMOKRATIE DER FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG)
Adolf Cluss (1825–1905). Marx had a very high opinion of Cluss, his main adherent in the United States during the 1850s. Cluss later renounced communism, joined the Republican Party, and became, after the U.S. Civil War, a leading Washington, DC, architect.
(MATTHEW BRADY, COURTESY ADOLF CLUß PROJECT)
Marx in 1861, at the prime of life: financial setbacks, increasingly severe health problems, and intellectual and political labors would soon age him substantially.
(BUNDESARCHIV BERLIN-LICHTERFELDE)
Coming up in the world: 41 Maitland Park Road in North London, where Marx lived from 1874 until his death in 1883.
(INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL HISTORY, AMSTERDAM)
The miseries of exile: the Marx family lived in a small apartment in this house on Dean Street, in Soho, for much of the 1850s.
(BUNDESARCHIV BERLIN-LICHTERFELDE)
Jenny Marx in 1869. Her father’s daughter, she was both Marx’s secretary and a left-wing journalist in her own right. The cross she is wearing was not a sign of religious affiliation but the symbol of the Polish uprising of 1863.
(BUNDESARCHIV BERLIN-LICHTERFELDE)
The Marxes’ second daughter, Laura. Although she shared her older sister’s views, she was not quite so intellectually or politically engaged as Jenny was.
(INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL HISTORY, AMSTERDAM)
The Marxes’ youngest daughter, Eleanor, as a precocious twelve year old in 1867.
(INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL HISTORY, AMSTERDAM)
The Marx family servant, Helena (Lenchen) Demuth. Marx’s paternity of her illegitimate son, Freddy, was, for decades, a closely guarded secret.
(BUNDESARCHIV BERLIN-LICHTERFELDE)
Delegates leaving the 1872 Hague Congress of the International Workingmen’s Association, watched by curious spectators. This congress marked the high point of Marx’s influence over the IWMA, which he used to terminate the organization altogether.
(INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL HISTORY, AMSTERDAM)
The 1875 Gotha Congress, uniting the pro- and anti-Prussian wings of the German socialist movement, is presented here as the personal reconciliation of Lassalle and Marx—definitely not a viewpoint that Marx himself endorsed.
(ARCHIV DER SOZIALEN DEMOKRATIE DER FRIEDRICH-EBERT-STIFTUNG)
In this picture of Marx, from the early 1870s, he looks aging, ill, and emaciated: more a mortal man than an icon.
(BPK, BERLIN / ART RESOURCE, NY)
The elderly Jenny von Westphalen in the 1870s.
(INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL HISTORY, AMSTERDAM)
Marx toward the end of the 1860s. The future iconic image is already apparent.
(BPK, BERLIN / ART RESOURCE, NY)
Not quite yet an icon: the grave of Karl Marx and Jenny von Westphalen in Highgate Cemetery, as it originally was, before the erection of the giant Marx bust in 1956.
(WILHELM LIEBKNECHT, KARL MARX ZUM GEDÄCHTNISS. EIN LEBENSABRISS UND ERINNERUNGEN [NUREMBERG: WÖRLEIN & COMP., 1896])
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Copyright © 2013 by Jonathan Sperber
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Sperber, Jonathan, 1952–
Karl Marx : a nineteenth-century life / Jonathan Sperber. — First edition
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index.
ISBN 978-0-87140-467-1 (hardcover)
ISBN 978-0-87140-354-4 (e-book)
1. Marx, Karl, 1818–1883. 2. Communists—Germany—Biography. 3. Philosophers—Germany—Biography. I. Title.
HX39.5.S67 2013
335.4092—dc23
[B]
2012044951
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ALSO BY JONATHAN SPERBER
Europe, 1850–1914: Progress, Participation and Apprehension
Property and Civil Society in South-Western Germany, 1820–1914
Germany 1800–1870 (editor)
Europe in 1848: Revolution and Reform (co-editor)
Revolutionary Europe, 1780–1850
The Kaiser’s Voters: Electors and Elections in Imperial Germany
The European Revolutions, 1848–1851
Rhineland Radicals: The Democratic Movement and the
Revolution of 1848–1849
Popular Catholicism in Nineteenth-Century Germany
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