by Georges Roux
28. PLINY, Naturalis historia, VI, 122; PAUSANIAS, Descriptio Graeciae, I, xvi, 3.
29. R. NORTH, ‘Status of the Warka Excavation’, Orientalia, XXVI (1957), pp. 206 – 7, 228 – 33, 327 – 41 (with bibliography).
30. M. RUTTEN, Contrats de l'Epoque séleucide conservés au Musée du Louvre, Paris, 1935. On temple organization and functions, see: G. J. P. McEWAN, Priest and Temple in Hellenistic Babylonia, Wiesbaden, 1981.
31. W. RÖLLIG, ‘Griechische Eigennamen in den Texten der Babylonische Spätzeit‘, Orientalia, XXIX (1960), pp. 376 – 91; A. KUHRT, ‘Assyrian and Babylonian traditions in classical authors: a critical synthesis‘, in H. J. NISSEN and J. RENGER (ed.), Mesopotamien und seine Nachbarn, Berlin, 1982, II, pp. 538 – 41.
32. Latest English translation: S. M. BURSTEIN, The Babyloniaca of Berossus, in Sources for the Ancient Near East, I, 5, Malibu, Calif., 1978.
33. N. C. DEBEVOISE, A Political History of Parthia, Chicago, 1938.
34. German excavations, 1903 – 14 (W. ANDRAE, Hatra): Iraqi excavations since 1951. Preliminary reports in Sumer, VIII (1952) ff. For a general description of the site, see: D. HOLMES-FREDERICQ Hatra et ses Sculptures Parthes, Leiden, 1963, and W. I. AL-SALIHI, Hatra (Historical Monuments of Iraq, 2), Baghdad, 1973.
35. H. LENZEN, Die Partherstadt Assur (WVDOG, 57), Leipzig, 1933.
36. R. NORTH Orientalia, XXXVI (1957), pp. 241 – 3; UVB, XIV (1958), pp. 18 – 20; XVI (1960), pp. 13 – 21; BaM, VI (1960), pp. 104 – 14.
37. JOSEPHUS, Antiq. Jud., XVIII, 310 – 79.
38. J. N. STRASSMAIER, ‘Arsakideninschriften‘, ZA, III (1888), pp. 129 – 42. TH. J. PINCHES and H. SAYCE, PSBA (1902), pp. 108 ff.; TH. J. PINCHES, The Old Testament in the Light of the Historical Records of Assyria and Babylonia, London, 1902, pp. 481 – 6; J. KOHLER and A. UNGNAD, 100 ausgewahlte Rechtsurkunden der Spätzeit des babylonischen Schrifttums, Leipzig, 1909; A. J. SACHS and J. SCHAUM-BERGER, Late Babylonian Astronomical and Related Texts, Providence, Rhode Island, 1955.
39. A. J. SACHS and J. SCHAUMBERGER, op. cit., No. 1201 (mentioned but not published).
40. DION CASSIUS, LXXI, 2; AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS, XXIII, vi, 34; ZONARAS, XI, 22, XII, 2. L. DILLEMANN, ‘Ammien Marcellin et les pays de l'Euphrate et du Tigre‘, Syria, XXXVIII (1961), pp. 86 – 158.
41. V. CHAPOT, La Frontière de l'Euphrate, Paris, 1907; A. POIDEBARD, La Trace de Rome dans le Desert de Syrie, Paris, 1934; D. OATES, Studies in the Ancient History of Northern Iraq, Oxford, 1968, pp. 67-117; Id., ‘Ain Sinu‘, in J. CURTIS (ed.), Fifty Years of Mesopotamian Discovery, London, 1982, pp. 120 – 22.
42. Ctesiphon was studied by German, then German and American archaeologists in 1931 – 2 and, more recently, by the Italians working in Seleucia (see note 22 above). On the Kish palace: S. LANGDON, ‘Excavations at Kish and Barghutiat’, Iraq, I (1934), pp. 113 – 22; P. R. S. MOOREY, Kish Excavations 1923 – 1933, Oxford, 1978, p. 180 ff.
43. H. LENZEN, ‘Ein Goldkranz aus Warka‘, Sumer, XIII (1957), pp. 205 – 6. On this tomb, the date of which has not been determined with certainty, cf. UVB, XV (1959), pp. 27 – 34; XVI (1960), pp. 23 – 9.
44. G. LE STRANGE, The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate, 3rd ed., London, 1966, pp. 26 – 9.
Epilogue
I. W. W. TARN, La Civilisation Hellénistique, Paris, 1936, pp. 219 – 37.
2. A list of these words will be found in H. W. F. SAGGS, The Greatness that was Babylon, London, 1962, pp. 493 – 5. This book also contains other examples of our Mesopotamian heritage.
3. J. BOTTERO, ‘L‘Assyriologie et notre histoire‘, Dialogues d'Histoire Ancienne, VII, Paris, 1981, p. 95.
4. Numerous studies have been devoted to the relations between the Greek and Oriental civilizations. They include: R. M. HAY-WOOD, Ancient Greece and the Near East, London, 1965; M. L. WEST, Early Greek Philosophy and the Orient, London, 1971; H. A. HOFFNER (ed.), Orient and Occident, (AOAT, 22), Neukirchen-Vluyn, 1973; D. KAGAN, Problems in Ancient History, I, The Ancient Near East and Greece, New York, 1975.
5. E. PORADA, ‘The cylinder seals found at Thebes in Beotia‘, AfO, XXVIII (1981 – 2), pp. 1 – 70; J. A. BRINKMAN, ‘The Western Asiatic seals found at Thebes in Greece’, ibid., pp. 73 – 7.
6. C. H. GORDON, Before the Bible, London, 1962, pp. 9, 132.
7. J. FILLIOZAT, ‘Pronostic médicaux akkadiens, grecs et indiens’, Journal Asiatique, CCXL (1952), pp. 299 – 321; M. SANDRAIL, Les Sources akkadiennes de la Pensée et de la Méthode hippocratiques, Toulouse, 1953.
8. C. H. GORDON, op. cit., pp. 49 – 97, 218 – 77. R. GRAVES, The Greek Myths, Harmondsworth, 1957, II, p. 89.
9. See, for instance, R. D. BARNETT, ‘Ancient Oriental influences on archaic Greece‘, in The Aegean and the Near East, Studies presented to H. Goldman, New York, 1956, pp. 212 – 38; R. A. JAIRAZBHOY, Oriental Influences in Western Art, London, 1965.
10. M. ROSTOVTZEFF, The Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic World, Oxford, 1941, I, p. 84.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES
I. PREHISTORY
* * *
PERIOD
MESOPOTAMIA
TECHNICAL AND
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
IN MESOPOTAMIA
DATES
B.C.
NORTH
SOUTH
* * *
c. 70000
MIDDLE
PALEOLITHIC
Barda Balka
Neanderthal hunter-gatherers living in caves and rock shelters.
Shanidar D
(c. 60–35000)
Hazar Merd
35000
UPPER
PALEOLITHIC
Shanidar C
(c. 34–25000)
Homo sapiens sapiens. Improvement and diversification of stone implements. Wider food spectrum.
25000
(Hiatus)
12000
Shanidar B2
Zarzi. Palegawra
9000
MESOLITHIC
Shanidar B1
Microlithic tools and weapons. Obsidian imported. Bone work. First clay figurines. First groups of dwellings. Beginnings of animal domestication.
Zawi Chemi Shanidar
8000
Karim Shehir
Mlefaat
Mureybet
Bus Mordeh
7000
NEOLITHIC
Jarmo
Ali Kosh
Progressive domestication of animals and edible plants. Villages. Invention of pottery. First baked bricks.
6000
CHALCOLITHIC
Umm Dabaghiuah
Use of copper. First mural paintings. Irrigation agriculture. First seals. First temples. Decorated luxury ware. Clay and alabaster figurines. Wide use of brick.
HASSUNA
Yarim Tepe 1
Matarrah
5500
SAMARRA
T. Sawwan
HALAF
Yarim Tepe 2
Arpachiya
OUEILI (Ubaid O)
5000
ERIDU (Ubaid 1)
Choga Mami
4500
HAJJI MUHAMMAD
(Ubaid 2)
NORTH UBAID
SOUTH UBAID
4000
Tepe Gawra
el-‘Ubaid, Ur
Temples and houses of increasing size and complexity.
3750
and numerous other sites
and numerous other sites
Terracotta sickles and pestles.
URUK PERIOD
Tepe Gawra
Urbanization. Potter's wheel. Swing-plough. Sail. Metal work (bronze, gold, silver). First cylinder-seals. Invention of writing (c. 3300). Development of sculpture. Expanding trade.
Qalinj Agha, Grai
Resh, Habuba Kabira
and numerous other sites
Uruk, Tell ‘Uqair
and numerous other sites
ANCIENT BRONZE
Tell Brak
---------------------
3000
NINEVEH V
JEMDAT NASR
Early Dynastic I
SUMERIAN CIVILIZATION
2700
City-states. Fortified towns. Development of writing.
Early Dynastic II
Administrative archives from Fara and Abu Salabikh.
HISTORIC
2500
Early Dynastic III
* * *
II. EARLY DYNASTIC PERIOD (c. 2900 – 2384 B.C.)
III. DYNASTIES OF AKKAD, GUTIUM AND UR III (c. 2334–2004 B.C.)
* * *
DATES
B.C. AKKAD/UR URUK/ISIN GUTI/LARSA LAGASH MARI
* * *
DYNASTY OF AKKAD Lugalzagesi
Sharru-kîn (Sargon)
(2334–2279) Sargon takes Mari and Ebla
2300 Rimush (2278–2270)
Manishtusu (2269–2255)
2250 Narâm-Sîn (2254–2218)
Lugal-ushumgal (2230–2200) Narâm-Sîn conquers
Mari and destroys Ebla
2200 Shar-kalli-sharri
(2217–2193) DYNASTY OF GUTIUM
21 Guti Kings down to 2120 SHAKKANAKKU
Ididish
Shu-Dagan
Isma-Dagan
(2199–2154)
Anarchy
Shu-Turul (2168–2154) URUK IV The Guti invade
Akkad and Sumer ENSI OF LAGASH
Ur-Baba (2155–2142) Nur-Mêr
Ishtup-Ilum
2150
* * *
Ur-nigina (2153–2147)
Ur-gigira (2146–2141)
+3 kings Gudea (2141–2122)
Ur-Ningirsu (2121–2118)
Pirig-me (2117–2115)
Ur-gar (2114)
Nam-mahazi (2113–2111) Ishkun-Addu
UR III URUK V
Utu-hegal (2123–2113) Tiriqan (x-2120) Apil-Kin
(2126–2091)
Ur-Nammu (2112–2095)
* * *
* * *
* * *
2100 GOVERNORS OF LAGASH VASSALS OF UR
Shulgi (2094–2047) Ur-Ninsuna
Ur-Ninkimara
Lu-kirilaza Iddin-Ilum
Ilum-Ishtar
Turam-Dagan
(2071–2051)
2050 Amar-Sîn (2046–2038)
Shu-Sîn (2037–2029)
Ibbi-Sîn (2028–2004) DYNASTY OF ISIN
Ishbi-Erra (2017–1985) DYNASTY OF LARSA
Naplânum (2025–2005) Ir-Nanna Puzur-Ishtar
(2050–2025)
Hilal-Erra
2000 Fall of Ur (2004) Emisum (2004–1977) Lagash becomes independent
(2023) Hanun-Dagan
(2016–2008)
* * *
IV. ISIN-LARSA, OLD BABYLONIAN AND OLD ASSYRIAN PERIOD (c. 2000 – 1600 B.C.)
V. KASSITE PERIOD (c. 1600 – 1200 B.C.)
VI. MIDDLE BABYLONIAN AND MIDDLE ASSYRIAN PERIODS (c. 1150 – 750 B.C.)
VII. NEO-ASSYRIAN* AND CEO-BABYLONIAN PERIODS (744–539 B.C.)
VIII. ACHAEMENIAN AND HELLENISTIC PERIODS (539–126 B.C.)
* * *
DATES
B.C. GREECE IRAN MESOPOTAMIA
* * *
Solon, archon (since c. 620) ACHAEMENIDS (since c. 700)
550 539: Cyrus conquers Babylon
Pisistratus (tyrant) (539–528) Cambyses II (530–522)
Darius I (522–486) ACHAEMENIAN PERIOD Revolts of Nebuchadrezzar III and Nebuchadrezzar IV (522–521)
500 Median wars (490–478) Xerxes I (485–465) Revolts of Bêl-shimanni and Shamash-erîba (482). Xerxes sacks Babylon
Artaxerxes I (464–424) c. 460: Herodotus in Babylon? The Murashû family, bankers at Nippur (455–403)
450 Pericles (strategus) (443–430)
Peloponnesian war (431–404) Darius II (423–405) Nabû-rimânni and Kidinnu astronomers
400 Artaxerxes II (404–359) 401: Xenophon in Babylonia
Philip of Macedonia (359–337) Artaxerxes III (358–338)
350 Alexander the Great (336–323) Darius III (335–331)
* * *
Gaugameles (331), Alexander enters Babylon and dies there in 323
DIADOCHI
Seleucos I (305–281)
SELEUCIDS HELLENISTIC PERIOD
311: beginning of the era of Seleucos
300 c. 300, Seleucia-on-the-Tigris founded
Antiochos I (281–260) Last royal inscriptions in Akkadian (Antiochos I)
Antiochos II (260–246) Berossus writes the ‘Babyloniaca’.
250 ARSACID PARTHIANS
Arsaces (250–248)
Seleucos II (245–226) Tiridates I (248–211)
Antiochos III (222–187) Temples built in Uruk
200 Artabanus I (211–191)
Antiochos IV (175–164)
Demetrios I (162–150) Mithridates I (171–138) Greek theatre at Babylon
150 Demetrios II (145–126) Artabanus II (128–124) 144: Mithridates founds Ctesiphon Demetrios reconquers Babylonia
Antiochos VIII (126–96) Mithridates II (123–88) 126: Artabanus II snatches Babylonia from the Seleucids
100 PARTHIAN PERIOD
Major building works
Orodes I (80–76) Assyria repopulated
Antiochos XIII (69–65)
64: Pompey conquers Antioch Phraates III (70–57)
Orodes II (57–37) Kingdoms of ADIABENE
(Assyria), OSRHOENE
(Edessa = Urfa) and CHARACENE (ancient sea-land).
50 Crassus defeated at Carrhae (Harran) (53 B.C.)
* * *
IX. PARTHIAN AND SASSANIAN PERIODS (126 B.C.–637 A.D.)
* * *
DATES
B.C. ROME IRAN MESOPOTAMIA
* * *
50 Caesar and Antony
Phraates IV (37–2) 38: Labienus' war against the Parthians
ROMAN EMPIRE
Octavius Augustus
(–27 to 14)
A.D.
Tiberius (14–37) Artabanus III
(11–38)
Caligula (37–41)
Claudius (41–54)
50 Vologazes I (51–78)
Nero (54–68) Foundation of Hatra
(c. 70?)
Vespasian (70–79)
Domitian (81–96) Pacorus II
(78–115) 74/75: Last known cuneiform text
Trajan (98–117)
100 Osroes (109–128) Temple of Gareus at Uruk (c. 110)
Hadrian (117–138) 114–117: Trajan’s campaigns in Mesopotamia takes Ctesiphon and reaches the Arabo-Persian Gulf
Antoninus (138–161) Mithridates IV
(128–147)
150 Marcus Aurelius (161–180) Vologazes III
(148–192) Kingdom of HATRA
(c. 160–240)
Commodus (180–192) 164: Cassius, legate of Syria, conquers Nisibin and Ctesiphon
Septimus Severus
(193–211) Vologazes IV
(192–207) 197: Septimus Severus conquers Ctesiphon Caracalla murdered at Carrhae (Harran)
200 Caracalla (211–217) Artabanus V
(208–226)
SASSANIDS SASSANIAN PERIOD
Alexander Severus
(222–235) Ardeshir I
(224–241)
Shapur I
(241–272) 226: Ardeshir conquers Mesopotamia
232: Unsuccessful campaign of Alexander Severus.
250 Valerian (253–260) 240: Ardeshir destroys Hatra
256: Shapur destroys Assur
260: Valerian prisoner of Shapur I
Aurelian (270–275) Bahram II
(276–293) 262: Odenath (Palmyra), allied to the Romans, marches on Ctesiphon
Diocletian (285–305)
300 Narses (293–302) 296: War against Narses, then peace. Rome gains provinces in Mesopotamia
Constantine (312–337) Shapur II