A Sailor's History of the U.S. Navy

by Thomas J. Cutler

  9. Congo (1964). U.S. naval units moved into this troubled African region in support of a rescue mission in which Belgian paratroopers were dropped from U.S. Air Force planes into the Democratic Congo Republic to extract seventeen hundred prisoners from the recent civil war who were threatened with massacre.

  10. Dominican Republic (1965–66). A revolution in the Central American nation endangered American citizens there, causing the United States to send in troops, which were supported by Navy units offshore.

  11. Korea (1966–74). The truce ending the fighting in the Korean War did not end the tension. Continual U.S. presence and periodic maneuvers by U.S. naval forces contributed to the maintenance of the status quo in this Far Eastern “tinderbox.”

  12. Cambodia (29 March–15 August 1973). After the withdrawal of U.S. forces from Vietnam, Americans continued to be involved in the Cambodian struggle until the country fell to the Communist Khmer Rouge.

  13. Thailand (29 March–15 August 1973). U.S. operations were conducted in and from Thailand in support of the operations in Cambodia.

  14. Cambodia evacuation (Operation Eagle Pull) (11–13 April 1975). U.S. personnel conducted a massive evacuation to save many from the advancing Communist forces, who eventually took power and began a reign of terror.

  15. Vietnam evacuation (Operation Frequent Wind) (29–30 April 1975). This massive evacuation saved Americans and many South Vietnamese from being captured or killed by advancing Communist forces.

  16. Mayaguez operation (15 May 1975). After Communist Cambodian forces seized the U.S. containership Mayaguez, U.S. naval and Marine elements mounted a rescue operation at Koh Tang Island, where the ship had been taken. U.S. carrier forces simultaneously struck at air and naval bases in Cambodia.

  17. El Salvador (1 January 1981–1 February 1992). As part of the Cold War struggle to keep third-world nations from falling under Communist influence and control, U.S. forces were involved in various operations for more than a decade in this Central American nation.

  18. Lebanon (1 June 1983–1 December 1987). U.S. involvement in this troubled Middle Eastern nation included naval presence at times of crisis, the insertion of Marines as peacekeepers, air and fire support missions (including some fired by battleship), and evacuation operations.

  19. Grenada (Operation Urgent Fury) (23 October–21 November 1983). In response to a Marxist coup and the threat of the establishment of a Communist military base on this Caribbean island, a U.S. twelve-ship task force, in conjunction with five hundred Marines, five hundred Army Rangers, five thousand Army paratroopers, and several SEAL units, assaulted the island. In three days, the island was occupied, government officials and American citizens were rescued, and more than six hundred Cubans were captured.

  20. Libya (Operation Eldorado Canyon) (12–17 April 1986). In response to a Libyan-sponsored terrorist attack, U.S. Navy and Air Force aircraft attacked numerous targets in Libya, including known terrorist training camps, air defense positions, military aircraft and airfields, a naval base, and key government positions.

  21. Persian Gulf (Operation Earnest Will) (24 July 1987–1 August 1990). In response to attacks on shipping in the Persian Gulf as a result of the ongoing Iran-Iraq War, U.S. naval ships escorted Kuwaiti oil tankers (which had been reflagged as U.S. merchant vessels). This action led to numerous naval operations and engagements, including air and surface strikes on selected Iranian targets, minesweeping operations, air and surface reconnaissance operations, and Operation Praying Mantis (retaliatory surface and air strikes against Iranian naval ships and bases and several oil platforms in the Persian Gulf). Ultimately, a total of 270 merchant vessels were escorted in 136 convoys, with just one merchant vessel and one naval ship damaged (both by mines).

  22. Panama (Operation Just Cause) (20 December 1989–31 January 1990). After a series of provocations that convinced President George H. W. Bush that American interests (the Panama Canal) and U.S. citizens (some thirty-five thousand were in the country at the time) were threatened, he ordered U.S. forces into Panama. They effectively took control of the situation, captured General Manuel Noriega (source of much of the problem), and restored order to the strategically important nation.

  23. Somalia (Operation Restore Hope) (3 December 1992–31 March 1995). In an attempt to safeguard the delivery of much-needed food and medical supplies to war-torn Somalia, U.S. Navy SEALs and Recon Marines led the way, landing at Mogadishu. Followed by some 12,500 American and 6,000 international troops from other nations, the situation caused the mission to change from one of humanitarian aid to actual combat. When all international forces were eventually withdrawn, a U.S. task force provided protection for the evacuation.

  24. Persian Gulf/Iraq (Operation Southern Watch) (1 December 1993–19 March 2003). U.S. aircraft maintained reconnaissance patrols and flew frequent combat response missions in established zones over Iraq (these were “no-fly” zones for the Iraqis) as part of a containment strategy against Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein, who continually defied UN restrictions placed upon him in the aftermath of the Persian Gulf War.

  25. Haiti (Operation Uphold Democracy) (16 September 1994–31 March 1995). To ensure the restoration of Haitian President Jean-Bertrand Aristide and to maintain order in the strife-torn nation, a U.S. task force landed Marines at Cap Haitien, leading the way for the establishment of a UN task force on the troubled island.

  26. Operation Joint Endeavor (20 November 1995–16 December 1996). U.S. and allied nations deployed peacekeeping forces to Bosnia to implement the military elements of the Dayton Peace Accords. Working with U.S. Army and Air Force units as well as elements from NATO, Sailors and Marines helped to ensure stability in this war-torn region.

  27. Operation Joint Guard (20 December 1996–20 June 1998). U.S. forces continued to ensure peace in Bosnia-Herzegovina as Operation Joint Endeavor transitioned into Operation Joint Guard.

  28. Operation Joint Forge (21 June 1998–). Despite a reduction in forces, U.S. forces (including U.S. Navy SeaBees) remain in Bosnia-Herzegovina to maintain peace and stability.

  Vietnam Service, 1962–73

  From the time that American assistance to the Republic of South Vietnam was confined to an advisory status through the period of major combat actions, the varied and extensive roles of the U.S. Navy were crucial to the overall military effort in Southeast Asia.

  The early participation of the U.S. Seventh Fleet allowed it to detect the infiltration of Communists by sea from the north, after which the Coastal Surveillance Force (Operation Market Time) conducted inshore operations as well as offshore patrols to augment the efforts of the Vietnamese Navy.

  Mobility and the endurance sustained by underway replenishment forces resulted in maximum use of Seventh Fleet carriers for retaliatory raids, for strikes in support of troops ashore, and for attacks against the enemy lines of communication. Naval air operations were of particular importance in the days before adequate airfields could be built ashore, and the ability of task forces to operate in the nearby Tonkin Gulf permitted effective and efficient air operations against targets in North Vietnam.

  The Amphibious Force of the Seventh Fleet projected ashore the first organized ground forces—U.S. Marines at Danang in March 1965—and carried out many later landings. Destroyers, cruisers, and the battleship New Jersey added the weight of their gunfire in support of forces ashore and conducted operations against the logistics lines of the enemy along the coast of North Vietnam.

  The Amphibious Command drew upon its Underwater Demolition Team capability to develop SEAL teams, which conducted operations against Vietcong guerrillas. The River Patrol Force (Operation Game Warden) extended the control of waterways in the Mekong Delta and other areas of the Republic of South Vietnam. The joint Navy-Army operations of the Mobile Riverine Force captured base areas and defeated enemy concentrations.

  Elements of the Coastal Surveillance, River Patrol, and Mobile Riverine Forces were eventually combined into Operation SEALORDS to inter
dict infiltration routes from Cambodia into the Mekong Delta, to control vital Mekong Delta waterways, and to harass the enemy in his base areas. The Navy’s Service Force and the SeaBees provided essential support to in-country forces.

  Sea lines of communication were a key to the prosecution of the war. From across the seas came the vast quantity of supplies required to fight this major war. Ships under the Navy’s Military Sealift Command delivered all but a small percentage of the tonnage, and the Navy’s sea power ensured that these capabilities remained unchallenged throughout the war.

  Naval medical personnel serving valiantly in the field with the Marines, as well as in hospitals and in hospital ships, saved lives and healed the wounded with unprecedented success. Salvage forces provided similar services for ships and craft, rescuing vessels in distress and recovering those lost in combat or to disastrous weather.

  After years of negotiations (from 1968 to 1973), the Paris Agreement of January 1973 between the United States, South Vietnam, North Vietnam, and the National Liberation Front finally ended the war, leaving the South Vietnamese with the responsibility for defending their own nation.

  Stars

  Three silver and two bronze stars represent the seventeen different campaigns and operations of the Vietnam War.

  1. Vietnam advisory campaign (15 March 1962–7 March 1965). In the early days of U.S. involvement in Vietnam, Sailors worked with the developing VNN as advisors, helping them with such things as logistical support, vessel construction techniques, and so forth. As the Communist insurgency increased, the Americans became more and more involved in combat operations. During this phase, Seventh Fleet ships fought a battle with Vietnamese patrol craft in the Gulf of Tonkin and launched a retaliatory air strike into North Vietnam. A sustained bombing campaign of the North (dubbed “Rolling Thunder”) began on 2 March 1965.

  2. Vietnam defense campaign (8 March–24 December 1965). As Communist efforts in South Vietnam increased, U.S. carriers continued bombing North Vietnam while U.S. Marines landed from Seventh Fleet ships at Danang, marking the beginning of major combat involvement in Vietnam. The Navy established the Coastal Surveillance Force (dubbed “Operation Market Time”), using its own Swift boats and Coast Guard WPBs to stop Communist infiltration from the sea. On 18 December, the U.S. Navy began patrolling the rivers of South Vietnam in an operation named Game Warden.

  3. Vietnamese counteroffensive, phase 1 (25 December 1965–30 June 1966). As the war continued, the Navy continued to patrol the coasts and rivers in brown-water operations. Minesweeping craft began patrolling the Long Tau River leading to Saigon to keep that vital waterway open to merchant traffic. Naval patrol craft worked to keep Vietnamese harbors open and safe in Operation Stable Door. Navy helicopters called “Seawolves” began supporting the newly arrived Navy PBRs in Game Warden missions.

  4. Vietnamese counteroffensive, phase 2 (1 July 1966–31 May 1967). To support U.S. Army operations in the strategically vital Mekong Delta and RSSZ, the Navy created the Mobile Riverine Force, using altered landing craft as river assault vessels to carry Soldiers into the many waterways of the region and to provide fire and blocking support during these operations. Boatswain Mate First Class James Elliott Williams earned the Medal of Honor when he took his PBR patrol in harm’s way and destroyed sixty-five enemy vessels and killed or captured hundreds of enemy soldiers that were infiltrating the Mekong Delta. Naval air operations continued from “Yankee Station” off North Vietnam and “Dixie Station” off South Vietnam.

  5. Vietnamese counteroffensive, phase 3 (1 June 1967–29 January 1968). PBR patrols were extended into the northern provinces of South Vietnam (so-called I-Corps tactical zone) during Operation Green Wave, while the Mobile Riverine Force conducted several large operations in the Mekong Delta and RSSZ. SeaBee units continued the massive buildup of combat support facilities all over South Vietnam.

  6. Tet counteroffensive (30 January–1 April 1968). Enemy attacks erupted all over South Vietnam during the holiday period known as Tet. After some initial setbacks in the early hours of the surprise offensive, U.S. and South Vietnamese forces responded by soundly defeating enemy elements. General William Westmoreland, overall commander of U.S. forces in South Vietnam, credited the Mobile Riverine Force with “saving the [Mekong] Delta” during this period.

  7. Vietnamese counteroffensive, phase 4 (2 April–30 June 1968). In the aftermath of the Tet Offensive, naval forces continued to patrol the rivers and coastlines and to provide direct air support for various operations in South Vietnam. Air operations against the North continued in the pan-handle region.

  8. Vietnamese counteroffensive, phase 5 (1 July–1 November 1968). Combat and support operations continued, but the strategy began to shift to the “Vietnamization” of the war (turning over patrol and combat operations to the South Vietnamese). As a first step, the VNN began minesweeping operations on the Long Tau River.

  9. Vietnamese counteroffensive, phase 6 (2 November 1968–22 February 1969). Bombing of North Vietnam was halted as a peace gesture, but reconnaissance flights continued. Air operations in the South continued, and the U.S. Navy initiated the Operation SEALORDS interdiction strategy that led to increased fighting on the waterways. The Navy also implemented its ACTOV in December 1968.

  10. Tet 1969/counteroffensive (23 February–8 June 1969). Fighting continued in the Mekong Delta as the U.S. Navy launched several offensives (Operation Giant Slingshot, Operation Barrier Reef, among others). The Navy also conducted raids into the rivers in the I-Corps tactical zone.

  11. Vietnam summer–fall 1969 (9 June–31 October 1969). Turnover to the VNN picked up speed while American Sailors kept the pressure on enemy forces through continued offensive operations.

  12. Vietnam winter–spring 1970 (1 November 1969–30 April 1970). Several operations were conducted during this period (Sea Float, Breezy Cove, Ready Deck, and the like) to maintain pressure on enemy forces while ACTOV continued.

  13. Sanctuary counteroffensive (1 May–30 June 1970). Naval air provided support for an incursion into Cambodia. Operation Blue Shark replaced the Operation Market Time raider program.

  14. Vietnamese counteroffensive, phase 7 (1 July 1970–30 June 1971). American naval advisors played an increasingly central role in South Vietnam as Vietnamization continued. U.S. naval air supported the South Vietnamese incursion into the Laotian sanctuary.

  15. Consolidation I (1 July–30 November 1971). U.S. Sailors remained in Vietnam, performing advisory roles while air reconnaissance and occasional retaliatory strikes were conducted against North Vietnam.

  16. Consolidation II (1 December 1971–29 March 1972). Air operations against North Vietnam intensified as it became clear that a major military buildup was under way.

  17. Vietnam ceasefire campaign (30 March 1972–28 January 1973). In April 1972, the last naval bases were turned over to the South Vietnamese; in that same month, the North Vietnamese launched a major invasion of the south. U.S. airpower played a key role in repelling the invaders as American advisors fought alongside their Vietnamese counterparts in the largest series of battles since the Tet Offensive of 1968. In January 1973, the Paris Peace Accords were signed, ending U.S. involvement in the war.

  Southwest Asia Service, 1991–95

  This medal was authorized on 12 March 1991 for participation in or support of military operations in Southwest Asia or in the surrounding areas between 2 August 1990 and 30 November 1995, including Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm.

  Stars

  Three bronze stars represent the three different campaigns of the Southwest Asia Service battle streamer.

  1. Defense of Saudi Arabia (2 August 1990–16 January 1991). When Iraq invaded Kuwait, President George H. W. Bush ordered two U.S. aircraft carriers into the area to join other naval forces already on station as a visible deterrent to further Iraqi aggression against the strategic vital nation of Saudi Arabia. A massive buildup of U.S. forces in the region (dubbed “Operation Desert Shiel
d”) prepared to go to war with the Iraqi forces to drive them out of Kuwait.

  2. Liberation and defense of Kuwait (17 January–11 April 1991). In a massive attack involving air, naval, and ground forces (dubbed “Operation Desert Storm”), the United States led a coalition of forces to liberate Kuwait. Air strikes, missile attacks, and naval gunfire missions led the attack, carrying out such missions for more than a month before ground troops began the final assault that defeated the Iraqi forces and liberated Kuwait.

  3. Southwest Asia ceasefire campaign (12 April 1991–30 November 1995). In the aftermath of Operation Desert Storm, U.S. forces remained in the area, carrying out various missions (among them, reconnaissance, air strikes, and humanitarian aid) to contain Iraq and prevent further destabilization in the region.