Linn, M. C., & Petersen, A. C. (1985). Emergence and characterization of sex differences in spatial ability: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 56(6), 1479–1498.
Voyer, D. (2011). Time limits and gender differences on paper-and-pencil tests of mental rotation: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 18(2), 267–277.
Voyer, D., Voyer, S., & Bryden, M. P. (1995). Magnitude of sex differences in spatial abilities: A meta-analysis and consideration of critical variables. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 250–270.
Gender and object recognition
Herlitz, A., & Lovén, J. (2013). Sex differences and the own-gender bias in face recognition: A meta-analytic review. Visual Cognition, 21(9–10), 1306–1336.
Lewin, C., & Herlitz, A. (2002). Sex differences in face recognition—women’s faces make the difference. Brain and Cognition, 50(1), 121–128.
McClure, E. B. (2000). A meta-analytic review of sex differences in facial expression processing and their development in infants, children, and adolescents. Psychological Bulletin, 126(3), 424–453.
Voyer, D., Postma, A., Brake, B., & Imperato-McGinley, J. (2007). Gender differences in object location memory: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14(1), 23–38.
Spatial ability is important for STEM professions
Tosto, M. G., Hanscombe, K. B., Haworth, C. M. A., Davis, O. S. P., Petrill, S. A., Dale, P. S.,… Kovas, Y. (2014). Why do spatial abilities predict mathematical performance? Developmental Science, 17, 462–470.
Wai, J., Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (2009). Spatial ability for STEM domains: Aligning over 50 years of cumulative psychological knowledge solidifies its importance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(4), 817.
Brain underpinnings for spatial and math skills overlap
Dehaene, S., Bossini, S., & Giraux, P. (1993). The mental representation of parity and number magnitude. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 122, 371–396.
Spatial skills important for explaining STEM concepts
Bobek, E., & Tversky, B. (2016). Creating visual explanations improves learning. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 1(1), 27.
Daniel, M. P., & Tversky, B. (2012). How to put things together. Cognitive Processing, 13(4), 303–319.
Hegarty, M. (2004). Mechanical reasoning by mental simulation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(6), 280–285.
Hegarty, M., & Kozhevnikov, M. (1999). Types of visual-spatial representations and mathematical problem solving. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(4), 684.
Tversky, B., Heiser, J., & Morrison, J. (2013). Space, time, and story. In B. H. Ross (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (pp. 47–76). San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-407237-4.12001-8
Spatial skills vary across professions
Blazhenkova, O., & Kozhevnikov, M. (2009). The new object-spatial-verbal cognitive style model: Theory and measurement. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 23(5), 638–663.
Blajenkova, O., Kozhevnikov, M., & Motes, M. A. (2006). Object-spatial imagery: A new self-report imagery questionnaire. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20(2), 239–263.
Kozhevnikov, M., Kosslyn, S., & Shephard, J. (2005). Spatial versus object visualizers: A new characterization of visual cognitive style. Memory & Cognition, 33(4), 710–726.
Specific spatial skills underlie navigation
Hegarty, M., Richardson, A. E., Montello, D. R., Lovelace, K., & Subbiah, I. (2002). Development of a self-report measure of environmental spatial ability. Intelligence, 30(5), 425–447.
Gender and navigation
Dabbs, J. M., Chang, E. L., Strong, R. A., & Milun, R. (1998). Spatial ability, navigation strategy, and geographic knowledge among men and women. Evolution and Human Behavior, 19(2), 89–98.
Lawton, C. A. (1994). Gender differences in way-finding strategies: Relationship to spatial ability and spatial anxiety. Sex Roles, 30(11–12), 765–779.
The National Academy of Sciences recommends teaching spatial skills
Committee on Support for Thinking Spatially. (2006). Learning to think spatially. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Many activities build spatial skills
Dye, M. W., Green, C. S., & Bavelier, D. (2009). The development of attention skills in action video game players. Neuropsychologia, 47(8), 1780–1789.
Dye, M. W. G., Green, C. S., & Bavelier, D. (2009). Increasing speed of processing with action video games. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(6), 321–326.
Wrestling builds spatial skills
Moreau, D., Clerc, J., Mansy-Dannay, A., & Guerrien, A. (2012). Enhancing spatial ability through sport practice. Journal of Individual Differences, 33, 83–88.
Athletics and spatial skills
Voyer, D., & Jansen, P. (2017). Motor expertise and performance in spatial tasks: A meta-analysis. Human Movement Science, 54, 110–124.
Building spatial skills in children (and adults)
Ehrlich, S. B., Levine, S. C., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2006). The importance of gesture in children’s spatial reasoning. Developmental Psychology, 42(6), 1259–1268.
Ferrara, K., Golinkoff, R., Hirsh-Pasek, K., Lam, W., & Newcombe, N. (2011). Block talk: Spatial language during block play. Mind, Brain and Education, 5(3), 143–151.
Frick, A., & Wang, S. H. (2014). Mental spatial transformations in 14- and 16-month-old infants: Effects of action and observational experience. Child Development, 85(1), 278–293.
Joh, A. S., Jaswal, V. K., & Keen, R. (2011). Imagining a way out of the gravity bias: Preschoolers can visualize the solution to a spatial problem. Child Development, 82(3), 744–745.
Kastens, K. A., & Liben, L. S. (2007). Eliciting self-explanations improves children’s performance on a field-based map skills task. Cognition and Instruction, 25, 45–74.
Levine, S. C., Ratliff, K. R., Huttenlocher, J., & Cannon, J. (2011). Early puzzle play: A predictor of preschoolers’ spatial transformation skill. Developmental Psychology, 48, 530–542.
Liben, L. S., & Downs, R. M. (1989). Understanding maps as symbols: The development of map concepts in children. In H. W. Reese (Ed.), Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 22, pp. 145–201). New York, NY: Academic Press.
Newcombe, N. S. (2010). Picture this: Increasing math and science learning by improving spatial thinking. American Educator, 34(2), 29.
Newcombe, N. S., & Fricke, A. (2010). Early education for spatial intelligence: Why, what, and how. Mind, Brain, and Education, 4(3), 102–111.
Newman, S. D., Mitchell Hansen, T., & Gutierrez, A. (2016). An fMRI study of the impact of block building and board games on spatial ability. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1278. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01278
Training spatial skills works
Uttal, D. H., Meadow, N. G., Tipton, E., Hand, L. L., Alden, A. R., Warren, C., & Newcombe, N. S. (2013). The malleability of spatial skills: A meta-analysis of training studies. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 352–402. doi:10.1037/a0028446
CHAPTER FIVE: THE BODY SPEAKS A DIFFERENT LANGUAGE
Gesture the foundation for language
Rizzolatti, G., & Arbib, M. A. (1998). Language within our grasp. Trends in Neurosciences, 21(5), 188–194.
Gestures in apes
Genty, E., & Zuberbühler, K. (2014). Spatial reference in a bonobo gesture. Current Biology, 24(14), 1601–1605.
Genty, E., & Zuberbühler, K. (2015). Iconic gesturing in bonobos. Communicative & Integrative Biology, 8(1), e992742.
Graham, K. E., Furuichi, T., & Byrne, R. W. (2017). The gestural repertoire of the wild bonobo (Pan paniscus): A mutually understood communication system. Animal Cognition, 20(2), 171–177.
Hobaiter, C., & Byrne, R. W. (2014). The meanings of chimpanzee gestures. Current Biology, 24(14), 1596–1600.
Moore, R. (2014). Ape gestures: Interpreting chimpanzee and bonobo minds. Current Biology, 24(14), R645–R647.
Pika, S., Liebal, K., & Tomasello, M. (2005). Gestural communica
tion in subadult bonobos (Pan paniscus): Repertoire and use. American Journal of Primatology, 65(1), 39–61.
Cultural transmission in apes
Horner, V., Whiten, A., Flynn, E., & de Waal, F. B. (2006). Faithful replication of foraging techniques along cultural transmission chains by chimpanzees and children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(37), 13878–13883.
Tomasello, M. (1994). Cultural transmission in the tool use and communicatory signaling of chimpanzees? In S. T. Parker & K. R. Gibson (Eds.), “Language” and intelligence in monkeys and apes: Comparative developmental perspectives (pp. 274–311). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511665486.012
Whiten, A., Horner, V., & De Waal, F. B. (2005). Conformity to cultural norms of tool use in chimpanzees. Nature, 437(7059), 737.
Entrainment
Brennan, S. E., & Clark, H. H. (1996). Conceptual pacts and lexical choice in conversation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22(6), 1482.
Holler, J., & Wilkin, K. (2011). Co-speech gesture mimicry in the process of collaborative referring during face-to-face dialogue. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 35(2), 133–153.
Mimicry is social glue
Chartrand, T. L., & Lakin, J. L. (2013). The antecedents and consequences of human behavioral mimicry. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 285–308.
Chartrand, T. L., & Van Baaren, R. (2009). Human mimicry. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 219–274
Emotion perception, imitation, and contagion
Decety, J., & Jackson, P. L. (2004). The functional architecture of human empathy. Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews, 3(2), 71–100.
Gallese, V., Keysers, C., & Rizzolatti, G. (2004). A unifying view of the basis of social cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8, 396–403.
Gergely, G., & Watson, J. S. (1999). Early socio-emotional development: Contingency perception and the social-biofeedback model. Early Social Cognition: Understanding Others in the First Months of Life, 60, 101–136.
Hatfield, E., & Rapson, R. L. (2010). Emotional contagion. In I. B. Weiner & W. E. Craighead (Eds.), Encyclopedia of psychology (4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Meltzoff, A. N., & Moore, M. K. (1992). Early imitation within a functional framework: The importance of person identity, movement, and development. Infant Behavior and Development, 15(4), 479–505.
Oatley, K., Keltner, D., & Jenkins, J. M. (2006). Understanding emotions. Hoboken, NJ: Blackwell.
Early gesture predicts early speech
Iverson, J. M., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2005). Gesture paves the way for language development. Psychological Science, 16(5), 367–371.
Özçalışkan, Ş., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2005). Gesture is at the cutting edge of early language development. Cognition, 96(3), B101–B113.
The blind gesture
Goldin-Meadow, S. (2018, December 18). Harper lecture with Susan Goldin-Meadow: Hearing gesture: How our hands help us think [YouTube video]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LXaQAtGybFc
Iverson, J. M., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (1997). What’s communication got to do with it? Gesture in children blind from birth. Developmental Psychology, 33(3), 453.
Iverson, J. M., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (1998). Why people gesture when they speak. Nature, 396(6708), 228–228.
Iverson, J. M., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2001). The resilience of gesture in talk: Gesture in blind speakers and listeners. Developmental Science, 4(4), 416–422.
Why gesture?
Cartmill, E. A., Goldin-Meadow, S., & Beilock, S. L. (2012). A word in the hand: Human gesture links representations to actions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 367(1585), 129–143.
Goldin-Meadow, S., & Alibali, M. W. (2013). Gesture’s role in speaking, learning, and creating language. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 257.
Hostetter, A. B., & Alibali, M. W. (2008). Visible embodiment: Gestures as simulated action. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 15(3), 495–514.
Kinds of gestures
Goldin-Meadow, S. (2005). Hearing gesture: How our hands help us think. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Kendon, A. (2004). Gesture: Visible action as utterance. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
McNeill, D. (1992). Hand and mind: What gestures reveal about thought. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
McNeill, D. (2006). Gesture: A psycholinguistic approach. In K. Brown (Ed.), The encyclopedia of language and linguistics (2nd ed., pp. 58–66). New York, NY: Elsevier Science.
Deixis
Fillmore, C. J. (1982). Towards a descriptive framework for spatial deixis. In R. J. Jarvella & W. Klein (Eds.), Speech, place and action: Studies in deixis and related topics (pp. 31–59). London, England: Wiley.
Depicting as communication
Clark, H. H. (2016). Depicting as a method of communication. Psychological Review, 123(3), 324–347.
Metaphors
Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (2008). Metaphors we live by. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Gesture in explanations often precedes words developmentally
Alibali, M.W., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (1993). Gesture-speech mismatch and mechanisms of learning: What the hands reveal about a child’s state of mind. Cognitive Psychology, 25, 468–523.
Goldin-Meadow, S., Alibali, M. W., & Church, R. B. (1993). Transitions in concept acquisition: Using the hand to read the mind. Psychological Review, 100(2), 279.
Gestures signal readiness to learn to teachers
Goldin-Meadow, S., & Sandhofer, C. M. (1999). Gesture conveys substantive information about a child’s thoughts to ordinary listeners. Developmental Science, 2, 67–74.
Goldin-Meadow, S., & Singer, M. A. (2003). From children’s hands to adults’ ears: Gesture’s role in the learning process. Developmental Psychology, 39, 509–520.
Gestures show strategies not conveyed in speech
Broaders, S. C., Cook, S. W., Mitchell, Z., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2007). Making children gesture brings out implicit knowledge and leads to learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 136, 539–550.
Emotion
LeDoux, J. (1998). The emotional brain: The mysterious underpinnings of emotional life. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
Lewis, M., Haviland-Jones, J. M., & Barrett, L. F. (Eds.). (2010). Handbook of emotions. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Oatley, K., Keltner, D., & Jenkins, J. M. (2006). Understanding emotions. Hoboken, NJ: Blackwell Publishing.
Mirroring emotion
Gallese, V., Keysers, C., & Rizzolatti, G. (2004). A unifying view of the basis of social cognition. Trends in Cognitive Science, 8(9), 396–403.
Using space to describe space
Emmorey, K., Tversky, B., & Taylor, H. A. (2000). Using space to describe space: Perspective in speech, sign, and gesture. Spatial Cognition and Computation, 2(3), 157–180.
Using space to order time
Bender, A., & Beller, S. (2014) Mapping spatial frames of reference onto time: A review of theoretical accounts and empirical findings. Cognition, 132, 342–382.
Boroditsky, L., Fuhrman, O., & McCormick, K. (2011). Do English and Mandarin speakers think about time differently? Cognition, 118(1), 123–129.
Marghetis, T., & Núñez, R. (2013). The motion behind the symbols: A vital role for dynamism in the conceptualization of limits and continuity in expert mathematics. Topics in Cognitive Science, 5(2), 299–316.
Núñez, R., & Cooperrider, K. (2013). The tangle of space and time in human cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17(5), 220–229.
Tversky, B., Kugelmass, S., & Winter, A. (1991). Cross-cultural and developmental trends in graphic productions. Cognitive Psychology, 23(4), 515–557.
Gestures help explain action and causality
Engle, R. A. (1998). Not channels but composite signals: Speech, gesture, diagrams and object demonstrations are integrated in multimodal explanations. In Proc
eedings of the Twentieth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 321–326). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Kang, S., Tversky, B., & Black, J. B. (2015). Coordinating gesture, word, and diagram: Explanations for experts and novices. Spatial Cognition & Computation, 15(1), 1–26.
Sitting on hands disrupts speaking
Krauss, R. M. (1998). Why do we gesture when we speak? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 7(2), 54–60.
Krauss, R. M., Chen, Y., & Gottesman, R. F. (2000). Lexical gestures and lexical access: A process model. Language and Gesture, 2, 261.
Gestures help thinking
Carlson, R. A., Avraamides, M. N., Cary, M., & Strasberg, S. (2007). What do the hands externalize in simple arithmetic? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33(4), 747.
Chu, M., & Kita, S. (2008). Spontaneous gestures during mental rotation tasks: Insights into the microdevelopment of the motor strategy. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 137(4), 706.
Schwartz, D. L. (1999). Physical imagery: Kinematic versus dynamic models. Cognitive Psychology, 38(3), 433–464.
Schwartz, D. L., & Black, J. B. (1996). Shuttling between depictive models and abstract rules: Induction and fallback. Cognitive Science, 20(4), 457–497.
Gestures for self help solve spatial problems
Jamalian, A., Giardino, V., & Tversky, B. (2013). Gestures for thinking. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, 35. Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0zk7z5h9
Tversky, B., & Kessell, A. (2014). Thinking in action. Pragmatics & Cognition, 22(2), 206–223.
Gestures lighten cognitive load
Cook, S.W., Yip, T., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2012). Gestures, but not meaningless movements, lighten working memory load when explaining math. Language and Cognitive Processing, 27, 594–610.
Goldin-Meadow, S., Nusbaum, H., Kelly, S. D., & Wagner, S. M. (2001). Explaining math: Gesturing lightens the load. Psychological Science, 12, 516–522.
Ping, R., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2010). Gesturing saves cognitive resources when talking about nonpresent objects. Cognitive Science, 34, 602–619.
Gesture helps mechanical problem solving
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