Schwartz, D. L., & Black, J. B. (1996). Shuttling between depictive models and abstract rules: Induction and fallback. Cognitive Science, 20(4), 457–497.
Gestures better than imagery for dynamic problem solving
Schwartz, D. L. (1999). Physical imagery: Kinematic versus dynamic models. Cognitive Psychology, 38(3), 433–464.
Gesture helps mental rotation
Chu, M., & Kita, S. (2008). Spontaneous gestures during mental rotation tasks: Insights into the microdevelopment of the motor strategy. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 137(4), 706.
Wexler, M., Kosslyn, S. M., & Berthoz, A. (1998). Motor processes in mental rotation. Cognition, 68(1), 77–94.
Gesture for self helps comprehension and memory of complex systems
Liu, Y., Bradley, M., & Tversky, B. (2018). Gestures for self help learning complex systems. Proceedings of Embodied and Situated Language Processing.
Gesture for self helps (or hinders) spatial problem solving
Tversky, B., & Kessell, A. (2014). Thinking in action. Pragmatics & Cognition, 22(2), 206–223.
Learned gestures help math
Goldin-Meadow, S., Cook, S. W., & Mitchell, Z. A. (2009). Gesturing gives children new ideas about math. Psychological Science, 20, 267–272. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02297.x
Congruent touchpad gestures help math problem solving
Segal, A., Tversky, B., & Black, J. (2014). Conceptually congruent actions can promote thought. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 3(3), 124–130.
Babies benefit from gesture
Acredolo, L. P., & Goodwyn, S. W. (2002). Baby signs: How to talk with your baby before your baby can talk. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Gestures help children understand set and cardinality
Alibali, M. W., & DiRusso, A. A. (1999). The function of gesture in learning to count: More than keeping track. Cognitive Development, 14(1), 37–56.
Gelman, R., & Gallistel, C. R. (1986). The child’s understanding of number. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Jamalian, A. (2014). Grouping gestures promote children’s effective counting strategies by adding a layer of meaning through action (unpublished doctoral dissertation). Columbia University, New York, NY.
People make larger gestures for others than for self
Bavelas, J. B., Chovil, N., Coates, L., & Roe, L. (1995). Gestures specialized for dialogue. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21(4), 394–405.
Goldin-Meadow, S. (2005). Hearing gesture: How our hands help us think. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
McNeill, D. (1992). Hand and mind: What gestures reveal about thought. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Learning action of complex systems is harder than learning structure
Hmelo-Silver, C. E., & Pfeffer, M. G. (2004). Comparing expert and novice understanding of a complex system from the perspective of structures, behaviors, and functions. Cognitive Science, 28(1), 127–138.
Tversky, B., Heiser, J., & Morrison, J. (2013). Space, time, and story. In B. H. Ross (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (pp. 47–76). San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-407237-4.12001-8
Teachers’ action gestures give students deep understanding of actions of complex systems
Kang, S., & Tversky, B. (2016). From hands to minds: Gestures promote understanding. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 1(1), 4.
Diagrams help understanding of simultaneity
Glenberg, A. M., & Langston, W. E. (1992). Comprehension of illustrated text: Pictures help to build mental models. Journal of Memory and Language, 31, 129–151.
Gestures alter thinking about time: Simultaneity, cyclicity, and perspective
Jamalian, A., & Tversky, B. (2012). Gestures alter thinking about time. In N. Miyake, D. Peebles, & R. P. Cooper (Eds.), Proceedings of the 34th annual conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 551–557). Austin, TX: Cognitive Science Society.
History of math notation
Ifrah, G., (2000). The universal history of computing: From the abacus to quantum computing. Translated by E. F. Harding, D. Bellos, & S. Wood. New York, NY: Wiley.
Gestures help coordinate conversation
Clark, H. H. (1992). Arenas of language use. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Clark, H. H. (1996). Using language. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Garrod, S., & Pickering, M. J. (2009). Joint action, interactive alignment and dialogue. Topics in Cognitive Science, 1(2), 292–304.
Goodwin, C. (1981). Conversational organization: Interaction between speakers and hearers. New York, NY: Academic Press.
McNeill, D. (1992). Hand and mind: What gestures reveal about thought. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Gesture and diagram working together
Engle, R. A. (1998). Not channels but composite signals: Speech, gesture, diagrams and object demonstrations are integrated in multimodal explanations. In Proceedings of the Twentieth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 321–326). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
Heiser, J., Tversky, B., & Silverman, M. (2004). Sketches for and from collaboration. Visual and Spatial Reasoning in Design III, 3, 69–78.
Gestures explode when designers get new ideas
Edelman, J. A. (2011). Understanding radical breaks: Media and behavior in small teams engaged in redesign scenarios (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Stanford University, Stanford, CA.
Edelman, J., Agarwal, A., Paterson, C., Mark, S., & Leifer, L. (2012). Understanding radical breaks. In H. Plattner, C. Meinel, & L. Leifer (Eds.), Design Thinking Research (pp. 31–51). Berlin, Germany: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Edelman, J. A., & Leifer, L. (2012). Qualitative methods and metrics for assessing wayfinding and navigation in engineering design. In H. Plattner, C. Meinel, & L. Leifer (Eds.), Design Thinking Research (pp. 151–181). Berlin, Germany: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Gestures sketch dance
Kirsh, D. (2010). Thinking with the body. Paper presented at the 32nd Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, Austin, TX.
Kirsh, D. (2011). How marking in dance constitutes thinking with the body. Versus: Quaderni di Studi Semiotici, 113–115, 179–210.
Conducting music
Kumar, A. B., & Morrison, S. J. (2016). The conductor as visual guide: Gesture and perception of musical content. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1049.
Visual more important than auditory in judgment of music
Tsay, C. J. (2013). Sight over sound in the judgment of music performance. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(36), 14580–14585.
Creative feats of spatial thinking
Biello, D. (2006, December 8). Fact or fiction?: Archimedes coined the term “Eureka!” in the bath. Scientific American. Retrieved from https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fact-or-fiction-archimede/
Shepard, R. N. (1978). Externalization of mental images and the act of creation. Visual Learning, Thinking, and Communication, 133–189.
CHAPTER SIX: POINTS, LINES, AND PERSPECTIVE: SPACE IN TALK AND THOUGHT
Lao Tzu quote
Le but n’est pas seulement le but, mais le chemin qui y conduit. (n.d.). Paul Andreu. Retrieved from http://www.paul-andreu.com/ [Note: This quote has been attributed to Lao-Tzu but may be from Confucius. In French, it is beautiful partly because of the multiple meanings of but: end, goal, destination.]
Structure of route descriptions
Denis, M. (1997). The description of routes: A cognitive approach to the production of spatial discourse. Cahiers de psychologie cognitive, 16(4), 409–458.
Levelt, W. J. M. (1989). Speaking: From intention to articulation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Structure of route maps
Tversky, B., & Lee, P. (1999). Pictorial and verbal tools for conveying routes. In C. Freksa & D. M. Mark (Eds.), Spatial information theory. Cognitive
and computational foundations of geographic information science. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Vol. 1661). Berlin, Germany: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Preferring others’ perspectives
Mainwaring, S. D., Tversky, B., Ohgishi, M., & Schiano, D. J. (2003). Descriptions of simple spatial scenes in English and Japanese. Spatial Cognition and Computation, 3(1), 3–42.
Schober, M. F. (1993). Spatial perspective-taking in conversation. Cognition, 47(1), 1–24.
Odd specification of address succeeds
Abed, F. (2017, August 11). Delivering a package in a city short on street names. New York Times.
People spontaneously mix perspectives
Taylor, H. A., & Tversky, B. (1992). Descriptions and depictions of environments. Memory & Cognition, 20(5), 483–496.
Mixing perspectives slows understanding, but only briefly
Lee, P. U., & Tversky, B. (2005). Interplay between visual and spatial: The effect of landmark descriptions on comprehension of route/survey spatial descriptions. Spatial Cognition & Computation, 5(2–3), 163–185.
People mix perspectives when describing environments
Taylor, H. A., & Tversky, B. (1992). Descriptions and depictions of environments. Memory and Cognition, 20(5), 483–496.
People understand descriptions that mix perspectives
Lee, P. U., & Tversky, B. (2005). Interplay between visual and spatial: The effect of landmark descriptions on comprehension of route/survey spatial descriptions. Spatial Cognition & Computation, 5(2–3), 163–185.
Taylor, H. A., & Tversky, B. (1992). Spatial mental models derived from survey and route descriptions. Journal of Memory and Language, 31(2), 261–292.
Different languages describe space differently
Levinson, S. C. (2003). Space in language and cognition: Explorations in cognitive diversity (Vol. 5). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
New Guinea sketch maps
Harley, J. B. and Woodward, D. (Eds.). (1992). The history of cartography. Vol. 2. Book One: Cartography in the traditional Islamic and South Asian societies. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Survey sketch maps are networks
Fontaine, S., Edwards, G., Tversky, B., & Denis, M. (2005). Expert and non-expert knowledge of loosely structured environments. In D. Mark & T. Cohn (Eds.), Spatial information theory: Cognitive and computational foundations. Berlin, Germany: Springer.
CHAPTER SEVEN: BOXES, LINES, AND TREES: TALK AND THOUGHT ABOUT ALMOST EVERYTHING ELSE
Susan Sontag on center and middle
Cott, J. (2013). Susan Sontag: The complete Rolling Stone interview. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
How language describes space
Talmy, L. (1983). How language structures space. In H. L. Pick & L. P. Acredolo (Eds.), Spatial orientation (pp. 225–282). Boston, MA: Springer.
Forms in art and architecture
Arnheim, R. (1969). Visual thinking. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Arnheim, R. (1982). The Power of the center: A study of composition in the visual arts. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Kandinsky, W. (1947). Point and line to plane. New York, NY: Guggenheim Foundation.
Klee, P. (1953). Pedagogical Notebook. New York, NY: Praeger.
Trees are ancient representations of knowledge
Eco, U. (1984). Metaphor, dictionary, and encyclopedia. New Literary History, 15(2), 255–271.
Gontier, N. (2011). Depicting the Tree of Life: The philosophical and historical roots of evolutionary tree diagrams. Evolution: Education and Outreach, 4(3), 515–538.
Lima, M. (2014). The book of trees: Visualizing branches of knowledge. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Architectural Press.
Branching in neurons
Cajal, S. R. (1995). Histology of the nervous system of man and vertebrates (Vol. 1). Translated by N. Swanson & L. Swanson. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Galbis-Reig, D. (2004). Sigmund Freud, MD: Forgotten contributions to neurology, neuropathology, and anesthesia. Internet Journal of Neurology, 3, (1).
Triarhou, L. C. (2009). Exploring the mind with a microscope: Freud’s beginnings in neurobiology. Hellenic Journal of Psychology, 6, 1–13.
Trees as visualizations
Lima, M. (2014). The book of trees: Visualizing branches of knowledge. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Architectural Press.
Six degrees of separation
Dodds, P. S., Muhamad, R., & Watts, D. J. (2003). An experimental study of search in global social networks. Science, 301(5634), 827–829.
Travers, J., & Milgram, S. (1967). The small world problem. Psychology Today, 1(1), 61–67.
Social networks
Henderson, M. D., Fujita, K., Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2006). Transcending the “here”: The effect of spatial distance on social judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(5), 845.
Yu, L., Nickerson, J. V., & Tversky, B. (2010, August 9–11). Discovering perceptions of personal social networks through diagrams. In A. K. Goel, M. Jamnik, & N. H. Narayanan (Eds.), Diagrammatic representation and inference: 6th International Conference, Diagrams 2010, Portland, OR, USA, August 9-11, 2010, Proceedings (pp. 352–354). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-14600-8
Creating tree visualizations
Munzner, T. (2014). Visualization analysis and design. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Shneiderman, B. (1992). Tree visualization with tree-maps: 2-d space-filling approach. ACM Transactions on Graphics (TOG), 11(1), 92–99.
Ancient depictions of time on a line
Hassig, R. (2001). Time, history, and belief in Aztec and colonial Mexico. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Sharer, R. J., & Traxler, L. P. (2006). The ancient Maya. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Smith, W. S., & Simpson, W. K. (1998). The art and architecture of ancient Egypt. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Mixed time metaphors
New York Times. (2017, November 26). Weekend briefing newsletter.
Ego-moving or time-moving metaphors
Boroditsky, L. (2000). Metaphoric structuring: Understanding time through spatial metaphors. Cognition, 75(1), 1–28.
Clark, H. H. (1973). Time, space, semantics, and the child. In T. E. Moore (Ed.), Cognitive development and the acquisition of language (pp. 27–63). New York, NY: Academic Press.
McGlone, M. S., & Harding, J. L. (1998). Back (or forward?) to the future: The role of perspective in temporal language comprehension. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24, 1211–1223.
Space structures time (not vice versa)
Boroditsky, L. (2000). Metaphoric structuring: Understanding time through spatial metaphors. Cognition, 75(1), 1–28.
Language and space
Clark, H. H. (1973). Space, time, semantics, and the child. In T. E. Moore (Ed.), Cognitive development and the acquisition of language (pp. 27–63). New York, NY: Academic Press.
Talmy, L. (1983). How language structures space. In H. L. Pick Jr. & L. P. Acredolo (Eds.), Spatial orientation: Theory, research and application (pp. 225–282). New York, NY: Plenum.
Gestures alter thinking about time
Jamalian, A., & Tversky, B. (2012). Gestures alter thinking about time. In N. Miyake, D. Peebles, & R. P. Cooper (Eds.), Proceedings of the Cognitive Science Society, 34, 551–557.
Distortions in memory for events in time
Huttenlocher, J., Hedges, L. V., & Prohaska, V. (1988). Hierarchical organization in ordered domains: Estimating the dates of events. Psychological Review, 95, 471–484.
Loftus, E. F., & Marburger, W. (1983). Since the eruption of Mt. St. Helens, has anyone beaten you up? Improving the accuracy of retrospective reports with landmark events. Memory and Cognition, 11, 114–120.
Homeostasis
Bernard, C. (1927). An introduction to the study of experimental medicine. Translated by H. C. Greene. New York, NY:
Macmillan. (Original work published 1865)
Cannon, W. B. (1963). The wisdom of the body. New York, NY: Norton Library. (Original work published 1932)
Feedback in computers
Wiener, N. (1961). Cybernetics or control and communication in the animal and the machine (Vol. 25). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Past is in front in Aymara language
Núñez, R., & Cooperrider, K. (2013). The tangle of space and time in human cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17(5), 220–229.
Núñez, R. E., & Sweetser, E. (2006). With the future behind them: Convergent evidence from Aymara language and gesture in the crosslinguistic comparison of spatial construals of time. Cognitive Science, 30(3), 401–450.
Future is sometimes down in Mandarin (and calendars)
Boroditsky, L. (2001). Does language shape thought? Mandarin and English speakers’ conceptions of time. Cognitive Psychology, 43(1), 1–22.
Fuhrman, O., McCormick, K., Chen, E., Jiang, H., Shu, D., Mao, S., & Boroditsky, L. (2011). How linguistic and cultural forces shape conceptions of time: English and Mandarin time in 3D. Cognitive Science, 35(7), 1305–1328.
Direction of time is direction of writing
Tversky, B., Kugelmass, S., & Winter, A. (1991). Cross-cultural and developmental trends in graphic productions. Cognitive Psychology, 23(4), 515–557.
Time gestured left-to-right
Santiago, J., Lupáñez, J., Pérez, E., & Funes, M. J. (2007). Time (also) flies from left to right. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14(3), 512–516.
Perspective in signed and spoken languages
Emmorey, K., Tversky, B., & Taylor, H. A. (2000). Using space to describe space: Perspective in speech, sign, and gesture. Spatial Cognition and Computation, 2(3), 157–180.
Symbolic distance
Banks, W. P., & Flora, J. (1977). Semantic and perceptual processes in symbolic comparisons. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 3, 278–290.
Holyoak, K. J., & Mah, W. A. (1981). Semantic congruity in symbolic comparisons: Evidence against an expectancy hypothesis. Memory and Cognition, 9, 197–204.
Moyer, R. S. (1973). Comparing objects in memory: Evidence suggesting an internal psychophysics. Perception and Psychophysics, 1, 180–184.
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