Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1981). The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice. Science, 211(4481), 453–458.
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1983). Extensional versus intuitive reasoning: The conjunction fallacy in probability judgment. Psychological Review, 90(4), 293.
In ancient geometry, the language annotated the diagrams, not vice versa
Netz, R. (2003). The shaping of deduction in Greek mathematics: A study in cognitive history (Vol. 51). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Spatial mental models
Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1980). Mental models in cognitive science. Cognitive Science, 4(1), 71–115.
Tversky, B. (1991). Spatial mental models. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 27, 109–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-7421(08)60122-X
Euler diagrams in reasoning
Chapman, P., Stapleton, G., Rodgers, P., Micallef, L., & Blake, A. (2014). Visualizing sets: An empirical comparison of diagram types. In T. Dwyer, H. Purchase, & A. Delaney (Eds.), Diagrammatic representation and inference. Diagrams 2014, Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Vol. 8578, pp. 146–160). Berlin, Germany: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Sato, Y., Mineshima, K., & Takemura, R. (2010). The efficacy of Euler and Venn diagrams in deductive reasoning: Empirical findings. In A. K. Goel, M. Jamnik, & N. H. Narayanan (Eds.), Diagrammatic representation and inference: 6th International Conference, Diagrams 2010, Portland, OR, USA, August 9–11, 2010, Proceedings (pp. 6–22). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-14600-8
Syllogistic reasoning with diagrams
Barwise, J., & Etchemendy, J. (1994). Hyperproof: For Macintosh. Center for the Study of Language and Inf.
Giardino, V. (2017). Diagrammatic reasoning in mathematics. In L. Magnani & T. Bertolotti (Eds.), Springer handbook of model-based science (pp. 499–522). New York, NY: Springer.
Green, T. R. G., & Petre, M. (1996). Usability analysis of visual programming environments: A “cognitive dimensions” framework. Journal of Visual Languages & Computing, 7(2), 131–174.
Shin, S. J. (1994). The logical status of diagrams. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Stenning, K., & Lemon, O. (2001). Aligning logical and psychological perspectives on diagrammatic reasoning. Artificial Intelligence Review, 15(1–2), 29–62.
Wexler, M. (1993). Matrix models on large graphs. Nuclear Physics, B410, 377–394.
Music notation
Wikipedia. (n.d.). Musical notation. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_notation
Dance notation
Encyclopaedia Britannica. (n.d.). Dance notation. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/art/dance-notation
History of devices for time
Bruxton, E. (1979). The history of clocks and watches. New York, NY: Crescent.
Ancient Chinese calendars
Calendars Through the Ages. (n.d.). The Chinese calendar. Retrieved from http://www.webexhibits.org/calendars/calendar-chinese.html
Petroglyph of supernova
Sule, A., Bandey, A., Vahia, M., Iqbal, N., & Tabasum, M. (2011). Indian record for Kepler’s supernova: Evidence from Kashmir Valley. Astronomische Nachrichten, 332(6), 655—657.
Depictions of events in classical art
Small, J. P. (1999). Time in space: Narrative in classical art. Art Bulletin, 81(4), 562–575.
Small, J. P. (2003). Wax tablets of the mind: Cognitive studies of memory and literacy in classical antiquity. New York, NY: Routledge.
Event perception and cognition
Daniel, M. P., & Tversky, B. (2012). How to put things together. Cognitive Processing, 13(4), 303–319.
Hard, B. M., Recchia, G., & Tversky, B. (2011). The shape of action. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 140(4), 586.
Tversky, B., & Zacks, J. M. (2013). Event perception. In D. Riesberg (Ed.), Oxford handbook of cognitive psychology (pp. 83–94). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Zacks, J. M., & Radvansky, G. A. (2014). Event cognition. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Zacks, J. M., & Swallow, K. M. (2007). Event segmentation. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(2), 80–84.
Zacks, J. M., & Tversky, B. (2001). Event structure in perception and conception. Psychological Bulletin, 127(1), 3.
Empirically establishing cognitive design principles for sequence of actions
Agrawala, M., Phan, D., Heiser, J., Haymaker, J., Klingner, J., Hanrahan, P., & Tversky, B. (2003, July). Designing effective step-by-step assembly instructions. ACM Transactions on Graphics (TOG), 22(3), 828–837.
Daniel, M. P., & Tversky, B. (2012). How to put things together. Cognitive Processing, 13(4), 303–319.
Tversky, B., Agrawala, M., Heiser, J., Lee, P., Hanrahan, P., Phan, D.,… Daniel, M. P. (2006). Cognitive design principles for automated generation of visualizations. In G. L. Allen (Ed.), Applied spatial cognition: From research to cognitive technology (pp. 53–75). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Robots using IKEA instructions to assemble chair
Suárez-Ruiz, F., Zhou, X., & Pham, Q. C. (2018). Can robots assemble an IKEA chair? Science Robotics, 3(17), eaat6385.
Warren, M. (2018, April 18). Can this robot build an IKEA chair faster than you? Science. Retrieved from http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2018/04/can-robot-build-ikea-chair-faster-you
Classic work on info graphics
Bertin, J. (1983). Semiology of graphics: Diagrams, networks, maps. Madison: University of Wisconsin.
Card, S. K., Mackinlay, J. D., & Shneiderman, B. (1999). Readings in information visualization: Using vision to think. San Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufman.
Enlightenment values
Pinker, S. (2018). Enlightenment now: The case for reason, science, humanism, and progress. New York, NY: Penguin.
History of diagrams and diagrammatology
Bender, J., & Marrinan, M. (2010). The culture of diagram. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Stjernfelt, F. (2007). Diagrammatology: An investigation on the borderlines of phenomenology, ontology, and semiotics (Vol. 336). New York, NY: Springer Science & Business Media.
Spontaneous use of space to convey time, quantity, and preference by children and adults across cultures
Tversky, B., Kugelmass, S., & Winter, A. (1991). Cross-cultural and developmental trends in graphic productions. Cognitive Psychology, 23(4), 515–557.
Up-down used metaphorically in language
Clark, H. H. (1973). Space, time, semantics, and the child. In T. E. Moore (Ed.), Cognitive development and acquisition of language (pp. 27–63). New York, NY: Academic Press.
Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (2008). Metaphors we live by. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Talmy, L. (2000). Toward a cognitive semantics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
You are the center of your social network
Yu, L., Nickerson, J. V., & Tversky, B. (2010). Discovering perceptions of personal social networks through diagrams. In A. K. Goel, M. Jamnik, & N. H. Narayanan (Eds.), Diagrammatic representation and inference: 6th International Conference, Diagrams 2010, Portland, OR, USA, August 9-11, 2010, Proceedings (pp. 352–354). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-14600-8
Seeing lines where there are none: Kanizsa figures
Kanizsa, G. (1976). Subjective contours. Scientific American, 234(4), 48–53.
Obsessed by lines
Tversky, B. (2011). Obsessed by lines. In A. Kantrowitz, A. Brew, & M. Fava (Eds.), Thinking through Drawing: Practice into Knowledge: Proceedings of an Interdisciplinary Symposium on Drawing, Cognition and Education (p. 15). New York, NY: Teachers College Columbia University Art and Art Education.
Tversky, B. (2013). Lines of thought. In H. D. Christensen, T. Kristensen, & A. Michelsen (Eds.), Transvisuality: The cultural dimension of visuality: Vol. 1: Boundaries and creative openings (pp. 142–156). Liverpool, England: Liverpool University Press.
Tversky, B. (2016). Lines: Orderly and messy. In Y. Portugali & E. Stolk (Eds.), Complexity, cognition, urban planning and design (pp. 237–250). Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer.
Klee: A line is a dot that went for a walk
Klee, P. (n.d.). A line is a dot that went for a walk. Paul Klee: Paintings, Biography and Quotes. Retrieved from http://www.paulklee.net/paul-klee-quotes.jsp
Points, lines, planes
Kandinsky, W. (1947). Point and line to plane. Translated by H. Dearstyne & H. Rebay. New York, NY: Guggenheim. (Original work published 1926)
Klee, P., & Moholy-Nagy, S. (1953). Pedagogical sketchbook. New York, NY: Praeger.
Interpreting and producing line and bar graphs
Zacks, J., & Tversky, B. (1999). Bars and lines: A study of graphic communication. Memory & Cognition, 27(6), 1073–1079.
Different inferences from different formats for data visualization
Kessell, A., & Tversky, B. (2011). Visualizing space, time, and agents: Production, performance, and preference. Cognitive Processing, 12(1), 43–52.
Nickerson, J. V., Corter, J. E., Tversky, B., Rho, Y. J., Zahner, D., & Yu, L. (2013). Cognitive tools shape thought: Diagrams in design. Cognitive Processing, 14(3), 255–272.
Nickerson, J. V., Tversky, B., Corter, J. E., Yu, L., Rho, Y. J., & Mason, D. (2010). Thinking with networks. In Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, 32(32).
Tversky, B. (2011). Visualizing thought. Topics in Cognitive Science, 3(3), 499–535.
Tversky, B., Corter, J. E., Yu, L., Mason, D. L., & Nickerson, J. V. (2012, July). Representing category and continuum: Visualizing thought. In International Conference on Theory and Application of Diagrams (pp. 23–34). Berlin, Germany: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Tversky, B., Gao, J., Corter, J. E., Tanaka, Y., & Nickerson, J. V. (2016). People, place, and time: Inferences from diagrams. In M. Jamnik, Y. Uesaka, & S. Elzer Schwartz (Eds.), Diagrammatic representation and inference. Diagrams 2016. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Vol. 9781, pp. 258–264). Switzerland: Springer, Cham.
Arrows
Denis, M. (2018). Arrow in diagrammatic and navigational spaces. In J. M. Zacks & H. A. Taylor (Eds.), Representations in mind and world: Essays inspired by Barbara Tversky (pp. 63–84). New York, NY: Routledge.
Heiser, J., & Tversky, B. (2006). Arrows in comprehending and producing mechanical diagrams. Cognitive Science, 30(3), 581–592.
Horn, R. E. (1998). Visual language. Bainbridge Island, WA: Macrovu.
MacKenzie, R. (n.d.). Diagrammatic narratives: Telling scientific stories effectively with diagrams (Honors thesis in psychology). Stanford University, Stanford, CA.
Mayon, C. (2010). A child’s conception of the multiple meanings of arrow. (Unpublished master’s thesis). Columbia Teachers College, New York, NY.
Tversky, B., Heiser, J., MacKenzie, R., Lozano, S., & Morrison, J. B. (2007). Enriching animations. In R. Lowe & W. Schnotz (Eds.), Learning with animation: Research implications for design (pp. 263–285). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Tversky, B., Zacks, J., Lee, P., & Heiser, J. (2000). Lines, blobs, crosses and arrows: Diagrammatic communication with schematic figures. In M. Anderson, P. Cheng, & V. Haarslev (Eds.), Theory and application of diagrams. Diagrams 2000. Lecture notes in computer science (Vol. 1889, pp. 221–230). Berlin, Germany: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Animated visualizations
Mayer, R. E., & Anderson, R. B. (1991). Animations need narrations: An experimental test of a dual-coding hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(4), 484.
Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2002). Animation as an aid to multimedia learning. Educational Psychology Review, 14(1), 87–99.
Tversky, B., Heiser, J., Mackenzie, R., Lozano, S., & Morrison, J. (2008). Enriching animations. In R. Lowe & W. Schnotz (Eds.), Learning with animation: Research implications for design (pp. 263–285). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Tversky, B., Heiser, J., & Morrison, J. (2013). Space, time, and story. In B. H. Ross (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (pp. 47–76). San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-407237-4.12001-8.
Tversky, B., Morrison, J. B., & Betrancourt, M. (2002). Animation: Can it facilitate? International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 57(4), 247–262.
Zacks, J. M., & Tversky, B. (2003). Structuring information interfaces for procedural learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 9(2), 88.
Congruent touchpad gestures help thinking and computation
Segal, A., Tversky, B., & Black, J. (2014). Conceptually congruent actions can promote thought. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 3(3), 124–130.
Isotypes and universal picture language
Neurath, O. (1936). International Picture Language. The first rules of Isotype. London, England: Kegan Paul.
Neurath, O., & Ogden, C. K. (1937). BASIC by Isotype. London, England: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner.
Graphic facilitator
Horn, R. E. (1999). Information design: Emergence of a new profession. In R. E. Jacobson (Ed.), Information design (pp. 15–33). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Diagrams help learning
Carney, R. N., & Levin, J. R. (2002). Pictorial illustrations still improve students’ learning from text. Educational Psychology Review, 14(1), 5–26.
Levie, W. H., & Lentz, R. (1982). Effects of text illustrations: A review of research. ECTJ, 30(4), 195–232.
Mayer, R. E. (2002). Multimedia learning. In B. H. Ross (Ed.), The Psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 41, pp. 85–139). New York, NY: Academic Press.
Mayer, R. E., & Gallini, J. K. (1990). When is an illustration worth ten thousand words? Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(4), 715.
Tversky, B., Heiser, J., & Morrison, J. (2013). Space, time, and story. In B. H. Ross (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (pp. 47–76). San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-407237-4.12001-8.
Simple diagram that convinced Bill Gates to devote his foundation to promoting global health
I am indebted to Eleanor Fox for this example.
Duenes, S. (2008, February 25). Talk to the newsroom: Graphics director Steve Duenes. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/25/business/media/25asktheeditors.html
Kristof, N. D. (1997, January 9). For third world, water is still a deadly drink. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/1997/01/09/world/for-third-world-water-is-still-a-deadly-drink.html
Storytelling
This is a tiny portion of the many thoughtful expositions of forms of discourse, especially stories.
Bordwell, D. (1985). Narration in the fiction film. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
Bordwell, D., & Thompson, K. (2003). Film art: An introduction. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Branigan, E. (1992). Narrative comprehension and film. New York, NY: Routledge.
Bruner, J. (1987). Actual minds, possible worlds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bruner, J. (2004). Life as narrative. Social Research, 71, 691–710.
Gee, J. P. (2014). An introduction to discourse analysis: Theory and method. New York, NY: Routledge.
Lupton, E. (2017). Design is story-telling. New York, NY: Cooper Hewitt Design Museum.
McPhee, J. (2013, January 14). Structure. The New Yorker, pp. 46–55.
McPhee, J. (2015, September 14). Omission. The New Yorker.
Prince, G. (2003). A dictionary of narratology (Rev. ed.). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Rumelhart, D. E. (1975). Notes on a schema for stories. In D. G. Bobrow & A. Collins (Eds.), Representation and understanding: Studies in cognitive science (pp. 211–237). New York, NY: Academic Press.
Schiffrin, D., Tannen, D., & Hamilton, H. E. (Eds.). (2008). The handbook of discourse analysis. New York, NY: Wiley.
Tversky, B. (2018). Story-tell
ing in the wild: Implications for data storytelling. In S. Carpendale, N. Diakopoulos, N. Henri-Riche, & C. Hurter (Eds.), Data-driven storytelling. New York, NY: CRC Press.
Tversky, B., Heiser, J., & Morrison, J. (2013). Space, time, and story. In B. H. Ross (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (pp. 47–76). San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-407237-4.12001-8
Comics can be effective for learning
Aleixo, P. A., & Sumner, K. (2017). Memory for biopsychology material presented in comic book format. Journal of Graphic Novels and Comics, 8(1), 79–88.
Caldwell, J. (2012, October). Information comics: An overview. 2012 IEEE International Professional Communication Conference (pp. 1–7). doi:10.1109/IPCC.2012.6408645
Short, J. C., Randolph-Seng, B., & McKenny, A. F. (2013). Graphic presentation: An empirical examination of the graphic novel approach to communicate business concepts. Business Communication Quarterly, 76(3), 273–303.
Theories and analyses of the comics medium
I am deeply indebted to Jon Bresman’s generous collaboration on this project. He has an encyclopedic memory for comics and a scholar’s understanding of them. Every time I asked, Is there a comic that does X? he came up with not only several examples but also more subtle phenomena I hadn’t yet thought about. He taught me how rich and funny and clever and beautiful the medium is.
Cartoon guides: Larry Gonick: http://www.larrygonick.com
Comics for kids: Toon Books: http://www.toon-books.com
Journalism: Archcomix: http://www.archcomix.com; Palestine (comics) in Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine_(comics); The Influencing Machine: Brooke Gladstone on the Media: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influencing_Machine_(book)
Compendium of excellent examples of comics art: Carlin, J., Karasik, P., & Walker, B. (2005). Masters of American comics. Los Angeles, CA: Hammer Museum and the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles, in association with Yale University Press.
Some lovely visual poetry expressing some of these ideas can be found in Nick Sousanis’s (2015). Unflattening. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Before he crafted the book, I had the pleasure of having Sousanis as a student in my course, where I taught many of the ideas on these pages and more.
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