Cohn, N. (2013). The visual language of comics. London, England: Bloomsbury.
Eisner, W. (2008). Graphic storytelling and visual narrative. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
Eisner, W. (2008). Comics and sequential art: Principles and practices from the legendary cartoonist. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
Groensteen, T. (2007). The system of comics. Translated by B. Beaty & N. Nguyen. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi.
McCloud, S. (1993). Understanding comics. New York, NY: William Morrow Paperbacks.
Spiegelman, A. (2011). MetaMaus. New York, NY: Pantheon.
Spiegelman, A. (2013). Co-Mix: A retrospective of comics, graphics, and scraps. Montreal, Canada: Drawn and Quarterly.
Picture remembered better than words
Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory: Retrospect and current status. Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie, 45(3), 255.
Explosion of emojis and GIFs
I am indebted to Oren Tversky for this example.
Clarke, T. (2018, October 5). 24+ Instagram statistics that matter to marketers in 2019. Hootsuite. Retrieved from https://blog.hootsuite.com/instagram-statistics/
Dua, T. (2015). Emojis by the numbers: A Digiday data dump. Retrieved from https://digiday.com/marketing/digiday-guide-things-emoji/
Konrad, A. (2016). Giphy passes 100 million daily users who send 1 billion GIFs each day, reveals GV as investor. Forbes. Retrieved from https://www.forbes.com/sites/alexkonrad/2016/10/26/giphy-passes-100-million-users-reveals-gv-as-investor/#2273a37f4d64
Freytag-Aristotelian narrative arc
Freytag, G. (1863). Die Technik des Dramas.
Structure of boxes and speech balloons in comics
Groensteen, T. (2007). The system of comics. Translated by B. Beaty & N. Nguyen. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi.
Adding information to words and images
Clark, H. H. (1975). Bridging. In Proceedings of the 1975 Workshop on Theoretical Issues in Natural Language Processing (pp. 169–174). Cambridge, MA: Association for Computational Linguistics.
Intraub, H., Bender, R. S., & Mangels, J. A. (1992). Looking at pictures but remembering scenes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18(1), 180.
Segmenting events and stories
McCloud, S. (1993). Understanding comics. New York, NY: William Morrow Paperbacks.
Tversky, B. and Zacks, J. M. (2013). Event perception. In D. Riesberg (Ed.), Oxford handbook of cognitive psychology (pp. 83–94). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Zacks, J. M. (2014). Flicker: Your brain on movies. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Culture and language affect creation of comics
Tversky, B. & Chow, T. (2017). Language and culture in visual narratives. Cognitive Semiotics, 10(2), 77–89.
CHAPTER NINE: CONVERSATIONS WITH A PAGE: DESIGN, SCIENCE, AND ART
Picasso and Braque quotes
Georges Braque. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Georges_Braque
Interview with Gaston Diehl. (1945). Les Problèmes de la Peinture. Paris, France.
Picasso, P., & Fraisse, G. (1999). Conversations with Picasso. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Da Vinci’s life and oeuvre
Kemp, M. (2005). Leonardo. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Advantages of ambiguity
Tversky, B. (2015). On abstraction and ambiguity. In J. Gero (Ed.), Studying visual and spatial reasoning for design (pp. 215–223). New York, NY: Springer.
Da Vinci’s designs
Gopnik, A. (2005, January 17). Renaissance man: The life of Leonardo. The New Yorker.
Isaacson, W. (2017). Leonardo da Vinci. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
Kemp, M. (2005). Leonardo. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Kemp, M. (2006). Seen/unseen: Art, science, and intuition from Leonardo to the Hubble telescope. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Rosand, D. (2002). Drawing acts: Studies in graphic expression and representation. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Wikipedia. (n.d.). Vebjørn Sand Da Vinci Project. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vebj%C3%B8rn_Sand_Da_Vinci_Project
Gemma Anderson’s collaborations with scientists
Anderson, G. (2017). Drawing as a way of knowing in art and science. Bristol, England: Intellect Limited.
Creating visual explanations improves STEM understanding
Bobek, E., & Tversky, B. (2016). Creating visual explanations improves learning. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 1(1), 27.
Diagramming in active STEM laboratories
Burnston, D. C., Sheredos, B., Abrahamsen, A., & Bechtel, W. (2014). Scientists’ use of diagrams in developing mechanistic explanations: A case study from chronobiology. Pragmatics & Cognition, 22(2), 224–243.
WORGODS: WORking Group on Diagrams in Science. (n.d.). Diagrams in science. Retrieved from http://mechanism.ucsd.edu/WORGODS/index.html
Architects make discoveries in their own sketches
Goldschmidt, G. (1991). The dialectics of sketching. Creativity Research Journal, 4(2), 123–143.
Goldschmidt, G. (2014). Linkography: Unfolding the design process. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Schön, D. A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the professions. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Suwa, M., & Tversky, B. (1997). What do architects and students perceive in their design sketches? A protocol analysis. Design Studies, 18(4), 385–403.
Expertise in finding new ideas from sketches
Ericsson, K. A., Hoffman, R. R., Kozbelt, A., & Williams, A. M. (Eds.). (2018). The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Ericsson, K. A., & Smith, J. (Eds.). (1991). Toward a general theory of expertise: Prospects and limits. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Suwa, M., & Tversky, B. (1997). What do architects and students perceive in their design sketches? A protocol analysis. Design Studies, 18(4), 385–403.
How designers and ordinary people find new ideas in sketches
Suwa, M., & Tversky, B. (1996). What architects see in their sketches: Implications for design tools. Conference Companion on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 191–192). Vancouver, BC, Canada: ACM. doi:10.1145/257089.257255
Suwa, M., & Tversky, B. (1997). What do architects and students perceive in their sketches? A protocol analysis. Design Studies, 18(4), 385–403.
Suwa, M., & Tversky, B. (2002). How do designers shift their focus of attention in their own sketches? In M. Anderson, B. Meyer, & P. Olivier (Eds.), Diagrammatic representation and reasoning (pp. 241–254). London, England: Springer.
Tversky, B., & Suwa, M. (2009). Thinking with sketches. In A. B. Markman & K. L. Wood (Eds.), Tools for innovation: The science behind the practical methods that drive new ideas. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Effective strategy: Reorganizing parts
Suwa, M., Tversky, B., Gero, J., & Purcell, T. (2001). Seeing into sketches: Regrouping parts encourages new interpretations. In J. S. Gero, B. Tversky, & T. Purcell (Eds.), Visual and spatial reasoning in design (pp. 207–219). Sydney, Australia: Key Centre of Design Computing and Cognition.
Constructive perception
Suwa, M., & Tversky, B. (2003). Constructive perception: A metacognitive skill for coordinating perception and conception. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, 25(25).
Tversky, B., & Suwa, M. (2009). Thinking with sketches. In A. B. Markman & K. L. Wood (Eds.), Tools for innovation: The science behind the practical methods that drive new ideas. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Creativity: Finding new ideas
Chou, J. Y., & Tversky, B. (n.d.). Top-down strategies outperform bottom-up strategies for finding new interpretations. Unpublish
ed manuscript.
Tversky, B. (2015). On abstraction and ambiguity. In J. Gero (Ed.), Studying Visual and Spatial Reasoning for Design Creativity (pp. 215–223). Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer.
Tversky, B., & Chou, J. Y. (2011). Creativity: Depth and breadth. In T. Taura & Y. Nagai (Eds.), Design Creativity 2010 (pp. 209–214). London, England: Springer.
Zahner, D., Nickerson, J. V., Tversky, B., Corter, J. E., & Ma, J. (2010). A fix for fixation? Rerepresenting and abstracting as creative processes in the design of information systems. AI EDAM, 24(2), 231–244.
Mind wandering
Baird, B., Smallwood, J., Mrazek, M. D., Kam, J. W., Franklin, M. S., & Schooler, J. W. (2012). Inspired by distraction: Mind wandering facilitates creative incubation. Psychological Science, 23(10), 1117–1122.
Christoff, K., Gordon, A. M., Smallwood, J., Smith, R., & Schooler, J. W. (2009). Experience sampling during fMRI reveals default network and executive system contributions to mind wandering. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(21), 8719–8724.
Mrazek, M. D., Smallwood, J., & Schooler, J. W. (2012). Mindfulness and mind-wandering: Finding convergence through opposing constructs. Emotion, 12(3), 442.
Architects as pastry chefs
A new school of pastry chefs got its start in architecture. (2018, January 24). New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/23/dining/pastry-chefs-architecture.html
Paradigm shifts
Kuhn, T. S. (2012). The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Shifting perspective leads to discoveries
Mukherjee, S. (2017, September 11). Cancer’s invasion equation. The New Yorker. Retrieved from https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/09/11/cancers-invasion-equation
Shifting perspective improves forecasting
Mellers, B., Stone, E., Murray, T., Minster, A., Rohrbaugh, N., Bishop, M.,… Ungar, L. (2015). Identifying and cultivating superforecasters as a method of improving probabilistic predictions. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(3), 267–281.
Tetlock, P. E. (2017). Expert political judgment: How good is it? How can we know? Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Tetlock, P. E., & Gardner, D. (2016). Superforecasting: The art and science of prediction. New York, NY: Random House.
Improving predictions
Schwartz, T. (2018, May 9). What it takes to think deeply about complex problems. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2018/05/what-it-takes-to-think-deeply-about-complex-problems
How experienced artists create
Kantrowitz, A. (2018). What artists do (and say) when they draw. In J. M. Zacks & H. A. Taylor (Eds.), Representations in mind and world: Essays inspired by Barbara Tversky (pp. 209–220). New York, NY: Routledge.
CHAPTER TEN: THE WORLD IS A DIAGRAM
Moving farther in space enables moving up economically
Rosling, H., Rönnlund, A. R., & Rosling, O. (2018). Factfulness: Ten reasons we’re wrong about the world—and why things are better than you think. New York, NY: Flatiron Books.
Cultural transmission in apes is by imitation, not by teaching
Whiten, A., Horner, V., & De Waal, F. B. (2005). Conformity to cultural norms of tool use in chimpanzees. Nature, 437(7059), 737.
Gesture important in human cultural transmission
Legare, C. H. (2017). Cumulative cultural learning: Development and diversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(30), 7877–7883.
Little, E. E., Carver, L. J., & Legare, C. H. (2016). Cultural variation in triadic infant–caregiver object exploration. Child Development, 87(4), 1130–1145.
Laws (norms) on the streets
Moroni, S., & Lorini, G. (2017). Graphic rules in planning: A critical exploration of normative drawings starting from zoning maps and form-based codes. Planning Theory, 16(3), 318–338.
Index
absolute reference frame, 151
abstract geometric ideas, 156–157
abstract thought, 14, 36, 57, 59, 71–74, 79, 87, 115, 118, 119, 121, 122, 125, 128, 130, 142, 153, 156, 157, 160, 163, 165, 172–175, 180, 181, 185, 187, 195, 203, 207–210, 220, 224, 227, 250, 258, 263, 274, 277, 284–288
abstraction
created by actions in space, 277
creative thinking, 263
diagrams, 288
forced by drawing, 258
gestures, 115, 130, 284–285, 288
graphics and, 284–285
ordering and, 163, 175
possibilities left open by, 258
spatial forms and patterns, 286
spraction, 277, 288
tallies as, 203
trunk and branches, 160
words and, 142
action(s)
abstractions created by, 277, 288
bodies and, 48–49
brain affected by, 17–18
in comics, 246
continuum from perception to action, 105–106
dynamics and, 132–133
enhancements of, 282
events distinguished from, 216
as foundation for language, 111
gestures, 111, 115–116, 130
on ideas, 86, 88
intentions of, 48–49
joint, 27–29
perception and, 16–19, 21–23
perspective taking and, 66
sensation and, 16–19, 30
in space, 115–116, 130, 277, 288
words for, 184–185, 284–285
addresses, 149, 151–152
alignment, 76–77
allocentric, 66, 69, 143, 146–149, 151, 153, 165–166, 183–184
alphabetic languages, 194
ambiguity, 83, 137, 142, 148, 150, 164–166, 199, 232, 263, 264–265, 267
anaphors, 245
animals, transitive inferences by, 173–174
animation, mental, 97–98
animations, educational, 235–236
approximate number system (ANS), 174–175, 176, 177, 178, 208
architecture, reliance on drawing, 262–264
arithmetic operations, 206, 207
arrows, 180, 232–235, 233 (fig.), 234 (fig.)
art, gestures in, 140
artists, exploration and, 274–275
aspect-to-aspect transitions, 245
assembly instructions, 217–220, 218 (fig.), 219 (fig.)
asymmetric relationships, 232
axes, 62–63
babies, 15, 27, 31, 34, 36, 42, 132, 164, 174, 214, 279, 281
actions, intentions, and goals, 19–21
gestures and communication, 112–114, 117, 131
integrating action and sensation, 16
bar graphs, 230–231, 230 (fig.)
baseball, catching fly balls, 97–98
basic-level categories of scenes, 49
basic-level categories of things, 36–39
beat gesture, 117, 133
biases
approximate number system and, 176–177
confirmation, 56–57, 273
impeding perception and discovery, 169
judgments and, 46–47, 73
linear, 168–169
perception influenced by, 55–57
perspective taking to overcome, 273
time and, 166, 168–169
biomimicry, 270
blindness, 34, 61, 113, 114, 124, 126
bodies
action and, 48–49
axes of, 62–63
in comics, 241
coordinated actions of, 109
coordination with others, 26–30
emotion and, 43, 47–48
integrating action and sensation, 16–19
internal perspective, 10–11
parts and, 10–16
people, places, and things surrounding, 33–58
understanding others’, 19–20
words describing, 185
body-centered framework, 66–67
body language, 109–140
body orientation, perspectives of, 92–94, 92 (fig.)
body parts
figurative extensions, 14–15
significance versus size, 13–14
body schema, 18–19
body-to-body communication, 111–112
borders, 179–180
Borges, Jorge, 35
bottom-up perceptual strategy, 266–267
boundary, 179–180
boxes, 52, 58, 86, 101, 130, 155–159, 184, 193, 215, 220, 222, 223, 226, 227, 231, 236, 238, 241, 244, 247, 250, 252–254, 278, 279, 283, 285, 286, 287
in comics, 244, 252–254
as containers for stuff and ideas, 155–159
in designed world, 286–287
labels for, 158
organization of kinds, 158–159
in the world and in the mind, 158–159
brain
action effect on, 17–18
face recognition, 40–41
linear conceptualizations of, 169
maps in, 68–71
maturation of, 34
pruning of synapses, 15
regions for recognizing who, what, and where, 34–35
scene recognition and understanding, 49
structure of, 11–13
calculation, 177–179, 192, 205–207
calendar perspective, 166
calendars, 213
cardinal directions, 74–75, 147, 151
cardinality, 131, 205
cartoons. See comics
categorical thinking, 52, 53–54, 224
categories, 43–44
design of our world, 278–280, 286
dimensions versus, 51–54, 58
efficiency of, 77–78
grouping and, 77
hierarchies, 286
kinds and boxes, 158–159
spatial, 77–78
themes and, 159
for things, 35–39
usefulness of, 52
causality
connection of event units, 216
dynamics and, 132
explanations, 239
gestures and, 123
ordering events in time, 172
time and, 212, 214
cave paintings, 192
center, 156, 226
certainty, words denoting, 181
change, words describing, 185
change blindness, 50–51
chemical bonding, 260, 260 (fig.)–261 (fig.)
children
animacy, understanding of, 23
connection of action and sensation, 16
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