Power, Sex, Suicide

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by Nick Lane


  Herrero, A., and Barja, G. ADP-regulation of mitochondrial free-radical production is different with complex I- or complex II-linked substrates: Implications for the exercise paradox and brain hypermetabolism. Journal of Bioenergetics and Biomembranes 29: 241–249; 1997.

  Calorie restriction and free-radical leakage

  Gredilla, R., Barja, G., and López-Torres, M. Effect of short-term caloric restriction on H2O2 production and oxidative DNA damage in rat liver mitochondria and location of the free radical source. Journal of Bioenergetics and Biomembranes 33: 279–287; 2001.

  Sex versus survival

  Kirkwood, T. B., and Rose, M. R. Evolution of senescence: Late survival sacrificed for reproduction. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 332: 15–24; 1991.

  Aerobic capacity of birds

  Maina, J. N. What it takes to fly: The structural and functional respiratory refinements in birds and bats. Journal of Experimental Biology 203: 3045–3064; 2000.

  Index

  Italic numbers denote references to illustrations. References to footnotes are followed by ‘n.’.

  absorption spectra, respiratory pigments 74–5

  ADP (adenosine diphosphate) 79; see also ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

  aerobic capacity hypothesis (evolution of endothermy) 180–5

  aerobic scope 168–70

  African Eve 3, 242, 246, 251

  ageing:

  cell loss 303

  exercise paradox 273, 306

  free-radical leakage 272–3, 274–5, 277, 303–11

  metabolic rate 158, 269–70, 272

  mitochondrial mutations 284–8, 296–301

  mitochondrial theory of 4, 272–301

  theories of 272–3

  see also lifespan

  age-related (degenerative) diseases 4, 270, 271–2, 295–301, 303

  algae, evolution of 25

  Allen, John 138, 143–4, 144, 289–90

  Altmann, Richard 12–13

  Alzheimer’s disease 298

  amino acids 10

  amoeba, phagocytosis, and the cytoskeleton 35, 38–9, 44

  Amoeba dubia 31, 121, 186

  Anbar, Ariel 62

  Andersson, Siv 44, 45, 49–50, 116, 117

  antibiotics, effects on bacteria 38, 41

  antioxidants and lifespan 274–7, 303–4

  apoptosis (programmed cell death) 5, 191

  balance with cell division 204

  caspases 206–7

  cells with faulty mitochondria 296

  control by mitochondria 5, 202, 207–11

  death genes 205–7

  embryo development 203–4

  failure as cause of cancer 5, 202 205–7

  human body 215

  immune function and 204

  machinery used to signal fusion 221–5

  origin of the term 204

  origins of apoptotic proteins 212

  role of cytochrome c 209–11, 260

  sequence of events 204–5

  threshold for 296, 299–300

  triggers for 207–11

  Archaea (prokaryotes) 28–9, 39–41

  see also methanogens

  archezoa (eukaryotes without mitochondria) 41–4, 46–7

  asteroids, as source of organic material 95–6

  ATP (adenosine triphosphate) 77, 79

  ‘high energy’ bond 80–1

  mechanisms of ATP synthesis 81–4, 93

  product of fermentation 79–80

  product of photosynthesis 80

  product of respiration 80

  reservoir of potential energy 79–81

  ATP pump, evolution in eukaryotes 61

  ATPase (ATP synthase) 77, 82, 83

  mechanism of ATP formation 90–1

  proton-motive force 86–7, 87

  reversal of synthesis process 91, 93

  structure of 90–1

  Attardi, Giuseppe 286–7, 293

  Avery, Oswald 29

  bacteria (prokaryotes) 8–9, 29–30

  autotrophic 21–2

  cell as the unit of selection 193–8

  common inheritance with eukaryotic cells 35

  competitive selection pressures 130

  C-value (total DNA content) 31

  death proteins 215–18

  differences to eukaryotic cells 30–5

  diversity without complexity 109

  DNA 9, 10, 31–2, 115

  energy sources 91

  gene gain by lateral gene transfer 118–21

  gene loss 116–19, 120–1

  genome size 31, 115, 120–1

  living inside other bacteria 59

  locomotion using proton-motive force 92–3

  loss of cell wall 38–9, 122–5

  membrane transport systems 85–7, 87

  multicellular colonies 25

  proton-motive force 91–3

  selfish gene concept 193–8

  size and complexity limitations 121–3, 127, 128, 128, 144–7

  size of 30

  species definition 119–20

  speed of cell division 114–15

  structure 33, 34–5

  sulphate-reducing 28–9

  surface area-to-volume ratio 121–2

  survival in extreme conditions 21–2

  Barja, Gustavo 277, 304, 306–7

  Barritt, Jason 263

  bats, energy requirements for flight 308–9

  Bdellovibrio 59, 213

  Benda, Carl 13

  Bennett, Albert 180–1

  bioenergetics 6, 67–70

  biophilic universe 22

  birds:

  degenerative diseases 271–2

  energy requirements for flight 308–9

  lifespan and metabolic rate 269, 270, 271

  reduction of free-radical leakage 304, 305–7

  Bishop, Charles 169

  Black Sea, stratification 62–3

  ‘black smokers’ (hydrothermal vents) 99–100, 100 n.

  Blackstone, Neil 219, 221–3, 224–5

  body mass, and metabolic rate 156–61, 160, 270, 271; see also size increase

  bone, strength-to-weight scaling 174–5

  Bowler, James 253

  Brand, Martin 183

  Brody, Samuel 159, 167

  Brown, James 160–6, 168

  Buchner, Louis 78–9

  Buss, Leo 198

  Caenorhabditis elegans (nematode) 205–7

  Calment, Jeanne 270 n.

  calorie restriction, and lifespan 276–7, 306, 308

  cancer 5, 200–2, 204, 215

  Cann, Rebecca 242, 244–7

  capillary density, and tissue demand 171–3

  caspases 206–7, 212

  catalysts 73, 95, 99–102

  enzymes (biological catalysts) 78–9

  Cavalier-Smith, Tom 36–7, 38, 41–2, 221

  cell, as the unit of selection 193–8, 201

  cell biology 8–11

  cell death, necrosis 203, 205; see also apoptosis

  cell membranes, evolution of 98–102, 101, 103–4, 133–5

  cell organelles, as symbionts 13–14

  cell wall, loss of 34–5, 38–40, 122–7

  chemiosmosis 7, 68, 86

  chemiosmotic hypothesis of respiration 86–91

  chlorophyll, absorption spectrum 75

  chloroplasts 13–14, 15, 33–4, 132

  chromosomes 9–10

  combinations of X and Y 229–31

  number anomalies 262–3

  telomeres and ageing 272

  Clark, Graham 46–7

  coenzyme Q 77

  coenzymes 76, 77

  colonies of cells 198, 215

  complexity, evolution of 151–5, 185–7

  convergent evolution 56

  Conway Morris, Simon 23, 24, 217

  Cope’s Rule 154

  Cormack, James 203

  Cosmides, Leda 237

  Crick, Francis 9, 10, 68

 
; Cummins, Jim 253

  Currie, Alastair 203

  Cutler, Richard 276

  C-value (total DNA content) 31

  C-value paradox 31, 186

  cyanobacteria 34

  cytochrome c 74, 76, 77, 209–11, 260

  cytochrome c gene 211–12

  cytochrome oxidase 76, 77, 141–3, 290–1

  cytochromes 74–5

  cytology 8–11

  cytoplasmic heredity 15

  cytoskeleton, presence in some bacteria 38–9

  Danielli, James 15

  Darveau, Charles-Antoine 176

  Darwin, Charles 151–2, 191, 238

  Darwinian evolution 107–13

  Darwinism, neo-Darwinism, ultra-Darwinism 192, 196–8

  Dawkins, Richard 24, 35, 192–4, 196–8, 252

  de Duve, Christian 27, 29

  de Gray, Aubrey 279–80

  degenerative diseases, see age-related (degenerative) diseases

  Dennett, Daniel 111

  diabetes, vulnerability to 255–6

  DNA 9–11, 31, 68, 94; see also mitochondrial DNA

  Dodds, Peter 167

  Drosophila metabolic rate 270

  Dunnet, George 269

  ectothermy 178, 179

  Else, Paul 181

  Embley, Martin 52–3

  embryo, selection of mitochondrial genes 262–5

  Emory classification 254

  endosymbiosis 13–14, 51, 109–13, 112

  endothermy:

  advantages of 178, 179

  aerobic capacity hypothesis 180–5

  birds and mammals 179, 180–1

  dangers of free-radical formation 182–3

  energetic costs 179–80

  heat generation by proton leakage 183–4

  and metabolic rate 180–5

  energetic efficiency, and size 173–6, 185–7

  energy, in molecular bonds 73

  energy generation: bacteria 67

  human body 67

  redox reactions 72

  the sun 67

  see also ATP; proton-motive force

  Engelhardt, Vladimir 79–80

  Enquist, Brian 160–3

  Entamoeba histolytica (cause of amoebic dysentery) 43, 46–7

  enzymes (biological catalysts) 10–11, 78–9, 95

  eukaryote evolution 25–6

  drive for size and complexity 29–30, 125–7, 151–5

  free radicals used to signal fusion 221–5

  gene transfer 58–9, 59–61

  predation 126–7

  selection pressures 56–7, 61–3

  eukaryote origins 19, 131–5, 145–7

  bottleneck thesis 27–9

  common inheritance with bacteria 35

  fusion of host cells 219–21

  gene sequencing used to identify 47–8

  hydrogen hypothesis 36–7, 51–64, 54, 58–9

  death apparatus 211–14, 215–19

  loss of cell wall 34–5, 38, 125–7

  mainstream view of origin 36–7, 38–50

  mitochondria and 5–6

  mitochondrial manipulation 219–21

  ‘Ox-Tox’ hypothesis 45–6, 49–50

  possible form of first cell 49–50

  possible initial bacterial association 44–6

  possible methanogen ancestor 48–50, 51–64

  possible origin by parasitic infection 44–6, 216–18

  source of machinery of death 211–14

  eukaryotic cells:

  cell membranes 133–5

  C-value (total DNA content) 31

  differences to bacterial cells 8–10, 30–5

  DNA arrangement 32

  energetic cost of complexity 32

  genes for archaeal lipids 135

  genome size (total number of genes) 31

  internal cytoskeleton 34–5

  membrane structures inside 32–4, 33

  nuclear membrane 32–3, 33

  nucleus 30–1, 133–5

  organelles 33, 33–4

  size of 30

  structure 9–11

  Euler, Hans von 79

  evolution:

  biophilic nature of the universe 22

  contingency versus convergency 23–4

  gene-centred approach 192–8

  macro-mutations 30

  multicellular organisms 24–6

  and purpose 107–8

  religious view of 107, 151–2

  exercise paradox (of ageing) 273, 306

  Eyre-Walker, Adam 248–9

  fermentation 78–9

  evolution of 95–8

  and phagocytosis 127

  synthesis of ATP 79–80

  flight, evolution of 23–4, 308–10

  forensic use of mitochondria 3, 250–1

  Fox, George 40

  fractal model, geometry of supply networks 161–70, 171, 181 n.

  Frade, José 213, 217, 218

  free radicals 92, 172

  formation of 140–2, 182–3

  and mitochondrial mutations 278–80, 292–6

  free-radical detection system 142, 310

  free-radical leakage 4, 289

  and ageing 272–3, 274–5, 277, 303–11

  mitochondrial feedback signal 290–1, 302–3

  and mitochondrial spare capacity 306–11

  sexual fusion initiation 221–6

  threshold for apoptosis 299–300

  Galileo 175

  Galton, Francis 252

  gene, as unit of selection 192–8

  gene number:

  asexual limit 153

  and sex 153, 186–7

  gene sequencing:

  archezoa 42–3

  search for the prototype eukaryote 47–8

  gene transfer:

  bacterium to host 58–9, 59–61

  from mitochondria to the nucleus 16, 47, 131–2

  origin of the eukaryotes 58–9, 59–61

  origin of the nucleus 134

  genes 9, 10

  accumulation and size increase 186–7

  loss 116–17

  mutation 10, 194, 200–1

  see also mitochondrial genes

  genome 10

  duplication or union of 108–9, 110, 197

  generation of random variation 108, 109

  human genome project 68, 132–3

  human mitochondrial genome 16, 281

  increasing the number of genes 108–9

  Giardia lamblia (intestinal parasite) 43, 47

 

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