The Second Kind of Impossible
Page 32
Al38Ni32Fe30, natural (steinhardtite), 343–44, 344
Al71Ni24Fe5, natural (decagonite), 344–46, 345
CuAl2, natural (khatyrkite), 131, 132–35, 137–40, 142–47, 151, 156, 158, 160, 326, 329, 329, 333, 354
CuAl, natural (cupalite), 131, 156, 164, 171, 199, 202, 203, 204, 208, 312, 313
alloys, synthetic
Al6Mn, synthetic (shechtmanite), 73–74, 74, 82–84, 86–87, 98
Al63Cu24Fe13, synthetic, 111–112, 111, 146–47
aluminum, 73, 75–77, 82, 85, 87, 130, 146, 359
natural vs. industrial, 150–57, 158, 217
aluminum copper alloys, 132–33, 162, 180, 193, 194, 196, 197, 225, 240, 281, 313, 315–16, 318, 319, 333
see also alloys, natural and alloys, synthetic
aluminum manganese alloys, 73, 75, 76, 79, 98, 100, 112
alternate explanations for, 99–103
diffraction pattern of, 102–4, 107
lack of definitive determination of structure of, 105, 111
Pauling’s model of, 101–2
see also alloys, synthetic
American Museum of Natural History, 88, 161, 236
Ammann, Robert, 52–53, 55–56
Ammann bars and lines, 56–58, 94, 109, 56, 57
Ammann channels, 58–61, 58, 60
Ammann planes, 94, 95–96
amorphous silicon, 31
continuous random network (CRN) model of, 31–32
Amsterdam, 160–61, 191–93, 197–99, 226, 244
Anadyr, Russia, 237, 246, 259, 268, 296
Andronicos, Chris, 240–41, 282, 285, 299
bear safety lessons, 259
carbon dating by, 342
and Grain #126A, 347–48, 347
on Kamchatka expedition, 239–41, 259, 261, 266, 267, 268, 270, 271, 273, 274, 281–82, 286, 291, 306, 322
presentation of preliminary results on expedition by, 296–97
Arctic bell-heather, 250–51
Argonne National Laboratories, 338
arts-and-crafts models, 38–40, 65–66, 97
Asimow, Paul, 349–54, 350
asteroid, Khatyrka’s parent, 362–64
Asteroid Redirect Mission (ARM), 363
atoms, 16–17, 32, 34, 81, 109, 219
in frequencies whose ratio is irrational, 62
Bancel, Peter, 103, 112
Berger, Robert, 42
Biancaniello, Frank, 73
big bang, 40, 181
big bounce, 40, 181
Bindi, Luca, 128–35, 129, 137, 143, 145, 146, 153, 271, 330
and author, first meeting with, 187–89
see also blue team and red team
Debora Koekkoek visit, 191–92, 197–99, 199
Monica and Roberto, dinner with, 190
and discovery of first natural quasicrystal, icosahedrite, 304–5, 305, 315, 315
and discovery of second natural quasicrystal, decagonite, 344–46, 345
and discovery of third natural quasicrystal, i-phase II, 355–59, 356
and experiments, see experimental tests
and identification of quasicrystal candidate in the field, 270–72, 305
isotope experiments and, 342–43
and issue of natural aluminum, 154, 157, 159–60, 163, 188–89, 190–91, 196–99, 204–5
joining the search for natural quasicrystals, 128–30
on Kamchatka expedition, 238–39, 247, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 282, 284–86, 289
and loss of samples by Air Express, 335–36, 343
named L’Uomo dei Miracoli, 313
odds on success of Kamchatka expedition given by, 296–97, 302
samples tested by, 301, 302–9, 316, 334–35
and Science article announcing discovery of first natural quasicrystal
(“Natural Quasicrystals”), 183, 186, 187
in search for origin of Florence sample, 160–63, 164–65, 167, 170, 171–76, 177–78, 215–19
steinhardtite named by, 343–44, 344
and stishovite in Florence sample by, 215–18, 217, 219
Blech, Ilan, 81
icosahedral clusters, theory of, 76–77, 77, 78–79, 98
and ten-fold diffraction pattern in alloy, 87
blue team and red team, 159–76, 177–83, 186, 188, 194, 210, 214, 215, 227, 239
Bragg, William Henry, 24
Bragg, William Lawrence, 24
Bragg peaks, 24, 25
in quasicrystals, 70
in stishovite, 217
Bravais, Auguste, 23, 25, 36, 57, 61, 62, 111, 128
Bravais lattices, 23, 24
Bruijn, Nicolaas de, 91
Bucks (cat), 248, 249, 254, 288, 292, 300
Bukhara, Uzbekistan, 126
Busemann, Henner, 339, 340
Cahn, John, 73, 75, 76, 81
author’s quasicrystal model endorsed by, 88
author visited by, 85–87
and multiple-twin idea, 76, 86–87, 102
and Shechtman, 73, 75–76, 81, 85–87, 102
calcareous spar, 13, 15
Caltech, 7–11, 31, 97, 159, 336, 348
Microanalysis Center of, 220–22
“Physics X,” 9–12
carbon, graphite vs. diamond, 30
Carbonaceous Chondrite Anhydrous Mineral (CCAM), 224
carbon dating of Khatyrka meteorite, 342
“Cargo Cult Science” (Feynman), 159
Carleton College, 162
Carnegie Institution, 338
Cat’s Cradle (Vonnegut), 37, 50, 64
caviar in field, 267, 288
cell phones, 360
cellular automaton, 44
Chaikin, Paul, 359, 360
Challenger space shuttle, 7
Château Margaux, 302
Chaudhari, Praveen, 308
chondrule, 311, 312, 312
Chukchi, 204, 209, 300
Chukotka Okrug, 165, 166, 168, 170, 171, 237, 246, 296
Cipriani, Curzio, 160, 178–79, 180, 181, 182–83, 184, 225
Cipriani, Marta, 178
continuous random network (CRN), 31–32
Conway, John, 43–44, 52
Croisset, Jacques de France de, 14–15
crystal:
formation in freezing of, 29
growing of, 105
reconstruction of atomic arrangement of, 24
crystallography, 17
author and Levine’s challenge to, 17–18, 35–37, 49, 61–62, 64
fundamental theorem of, 61–62
three principles at foundation of, 18–19, 75
crystalloids, patent application, 69–70, 69
see also quasicrystals
crystals:
periodicity of, 18, 22
possible combinations of symmetries of, 23
rotational symmetry of, 18, 22–23
X-raying, 23–24
crystal twins, 74–76
cubatic phase, 29
cubic symmetry, 29, 32
cupalite, 131, 156, 164, 171, 199, 202, 203, 204, 208, 312, 313
CV3 carbonaceous chondrite meteorite, 180, 181, 224–25, 316, 320, 322, 333, 364
Cybernox, 123–24
cyclic theory of the universe, 131
Dalton, John, 16–17
Darb-i Imam shrine, 126
Daubenton, Louis-Jean-Marie, 14
“Dave,” anonymous donor, 236–37, 307, 313
Davidson, Cameron, 162
decagonite, 344–46, 345, 353
decagonal Kikuchi pattern, in natural quasicrystal, 142
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), 73
Deffeyes, Ken, 117–19, 308
deflation and inflation rule, 50, 51, 94
three-dimensional, 94–95
Democritus, 16
diamond, 30, 30, 216
diffraction pattern:
of Al6Mn, 102–4, 107
of icosahedral glass, 102, 103
of icosahedron, 88
of Pe
nrose tiling, 54–55
diffraction pattern (cont.)
of quasicrystals, 70–72, 82, 84, 87, 91–92
of stishovite, 217
ten-fold, 86–87
Distler, Vadim, 205–6, 238, 242, 254, 270, 289, 294, 306, 321, 331
DiVincenzo, David, 107–8
dog’s breakfast, 196–97, 226, 347
Downstream Green Clay Wall, 289, 314
Dubois, Jean-Marie, 123
Dungeons & Dragons, 33, 35, 77
Eddy, Mike, 239, 240, 268, 270, 273, 274, 282, 282, 286, 296, 306, 322
Egypt, 22, 58
Eiffel, Gustav, 16
eight-fold symmetry, 100
of Ammann’s tiling, 55
in quasiperiodic ordering, 66–67
Eiler, John, 220–22, 223, 308, 315–16, 336
electronics, 359–60
eleven-fold symmetry, 92
Endless Universe (Steinhardt and Turok), 130–34
Energy Department, U.S., 236
equilateral triangles, rotational symmetry of, 21
Euclid, 59
experimental tests:
FIB experiment, 330–33, 332
propellant gun experiment, 349–352, 350, 351, 353
helium and neon isotope experiments in Zurich, 339–43, 348, 351, 363
oxygen isotope experiments at Caltech, 220–26, 224, 316, 318, 322,
high-pressure, high-temperature stability experiments at accelerators in Chicago and Tokyo, 338–39
fat and skinny rhombohedron, 53, 53, 54–55, 65–66, 93, 94, 95, 105, 106
Fei, Yingwei, 338
Festival della Scienza, 130–31
Feynman, Richard, 7–8, 159, 211, 308
and author’s quasicrystal experiment, 7, 12–13, 18, 25, 26–27, 97
on following problems where they lead, 31
on fooling yourself, 159, 183, 212, 218
“impossible” used by, 7, 11–12, 27
“Physics X” and author, 9–12
Feynman Lectures on Physics, The (Feynman), 8–9, 13
Fibonacci, Leonardo, 61
Fibonacci sequence, 58, 61
five-fold rotational symmetry, 75, 345
of Florence sample, 307
and the golden ratio, 59, 59
of Grain #5, 305–6
and icosahedrons, 33–34, 70
“impossibility” of, 22, 23, 25, 33, 38, 62, 64, 70
Mackay’s interest in, 53
in Penrose tiling, 47–49, 51, 55, 57
in rhombus tiling, 55, 57
of stishovite, 217
in three dimensions, 33
and Tsai team’s quasicrystal, 111
Florence, University Museum of Natural History, 128–29, 132, 144, 160, 163, 177–79, 182–85, 188–91, 221, 233, 345
Florence sample, 285, 296, 302–3
in blue-green clay, 165, 208, 228, 232, 243, 266, 297
icosahedral symmetry of, 307
inner Earth theory of origin of, 219, 220, 221
Kryachko’s recovery of, 206–9, 232, 234–35, 238
Luca’s retrieval from museum storage room of, 132–35
Luca’s pulverizing of, 193, 194
MacPherson’s criticism of, 243–44
meteorite theory of natural origin of, 153, 154, 155, 180–82, 185, 190, 213, 218, 219, 220, 221, 225, 228, 232, 241, 281, 282–83, 314, 315–16, 325
origin of, 150–57, 160–63, 164–65, 167, 170–76, 177, 184, 199, 200, 207, 209, 211–14, 215–19, 225–26, 245, 259
oxygen isotopes in, 214, 220, 222–23, 226
as possibly slag, 155–57, 158, 161, 196, 213, 218, 225–26
powder-diffraction test of, 145
stishovite grains discovered in, 216–19, 221
superplumes and, 152–53, 154, 240–41, 273
focused ion beam (FIB), 330–33, 332
fool’s quasicrystals, 287–88
#4061–Khatyrkite, 132, 178–79, 182, 225
FSB, 201, 237
Game of Life, 44
Gardner, Martin, 41–42, 43, 55
girih tiles, 126
glass, CRN model of, 31–32
glassy solids, 31
golden ratio, 58–61, 59, 70
Goldman, Alan, 102
graphite, 30, 30, 216
Gratias, Denis, 81, 85, 87
Green Clay Wall, 270, 286, 306–7, 314
growth rules, 105, 107
for two-dimensional Penrose tilings, 105, 107, 109, 110
for three-dimensional icosahedral building blocks, 110
Grunbaum, Branko, 55
Guan, Yunbin, 220, 308, 315–16
Guth, Alan, 67–68
Haifa, Israel, 97–98
Hann, Connor, 110
Haüy, René-Just, 13–16, 17, 18, 22, 25, 36, 57, 61, 62, 111, 128
Heiney, Paul, 103, 112
helium and neon isotopes in Zurich test, 339, 340
hierarchical growth of crystals and quasicrystals, 95
Hitachi High Technologies, 330
Hollister, Lincoln, 150–51, 150, 291, 306, 307, 328
see also blue team and red team
and Allende sample, 182, 183
and Science article announcing discovery of first natural quasicrystal (“Natural Quasicrystals”), 158, 167, 184, 185, 186, 187
and Chaney Lin, 328–34
desire to join Kamchatka expedition, 239, 240, 246
discoveries by, 148–49
and discovery of origin of holotype, 209–10
and discovery of stishovite in Florence sample, 218
Grain #125 investigated by, 326–27, 328–34, 347, 356
Hollister gaze, 151
hollisterite named for, 355
and issue of natural aluminum, 150–57, 158–59, 161, 163, 167–69, 172, 184, 185, 188, 189, 193–94, 195–96, 215, 241
and nebula theory of origin of quasicrystal, 337, 339
as red team member, 159, 167, 169, 183, 186, 188, 194, 210, 214, 215, 227, 239
holotypes, 163–64
IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center, 72, 80, 107–8
ice-nine, 37, 50, 64
icosahedral clusters, Shechtman-Blech model, 76–78, 77, 98, 102
icosahedral glass, 102, 104, 105, 112
icosahedral symmetry, 32–35, 33, 37–40, 55, 100, 145–46
icosahedrite, 220–28, 313–15, 315, 316–19
and extreme pressure, 337
in Grain #126A, 354–59
study of, 338–39
icosahedron, 32–35, 33, 37–38, 76–77, 96–97
different rotational symmetries of, 64, 70
diffraction pattern of, 88
five-fold rotational symmetry of, 33–34, 33, 70
golden ratio and, 59–60, 59
Mackay’s interest in, 53
in natural quasicrystal, 142, 146
icosahedron packing, empty spaces between, 34–35, 34, 76–78, 77
impossible:
Feynman’s use of word, 7, 11–12, 27
two kinds of, 2–3, 151–53
inflation rules for Penrose tiles, 51, 94
for three-dimensional building blocks, 94–95
inflationary theory of universe, 67–68
Institute of Geology of Ore Deposits, Petrography, Mineralogy, and Geochemistry (IGEM), 205, 206
Institute of Platinum, 201
International Centre for Diffraction Data (ICDD), 119–23, 127, 129, 130, 134
International Mineralogical Association (IMA), 132, 164, 200, 346, 355
International Mineralogical Association Commission on New Minerals, Nomenclature and Classification, 227–28
Iomrautvaam River, 207, 264, 265, 267, 276
i-phase II, 355–59, 356, 361
significance for author, 357–59
iron beads, 349–54, 348
irrational numbers, 59
Islamic tiling, 125–26
isotopes:
helium and neon, 339–42
oxyge
n, 214, 220–26, 224, 244, 316, 322
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 212
Journal of Applied Physics, Schectman-Blech, 78–79, 87
Julia 89, 363–64
Kamchatka Peninsula, Steinhardt expedition to, 1–2, 3, 165, 166 (map), 170, 201, 206, 210, 226, 228, 231–51, 252–72, 273–301
author’s gear on, 253–54
author’s reluctance to take part in, 232, 245–47
bears on, 258–59, 275–76, 279–80
blue-green clay discovered on, 278–83, 314
considered hopeless, 234
dig sites on, 279–83
drivers on, 247–48
emergency plan for, 274
final feast on, 290–91
funding for, 235–37
grains collected on, 297–300, 301, 302–9, 334–35
idea for helicopter on, 246
Kryachko on, 234–35
leaky oil drums on, 257–58
mapping on, 268, 269–70, 288, 321–22
mosquitoes on, 252, 254, 265–66, 280, 292–93
obstacles in, 256–58
opposition to results of, 319–22
people chosen for, 238–42
permission for, 237–38, 242
planning for, 243–47
return trip in, 292–96
search for quasicrystals on, 267–72
start of, 248–49
storm in, 273–74
target practice in, 276–77
trucks on, 247, 248, 250, 251, 255–56, 262–63
Will missing in, 233–34, 251
KGB, 201
Khatyrka meteorite, 297, 317, 321, 323, 326, 328, 333, 361
Grain #121, 311–13
Grain #122, 313
Grain #123, 314
Grain #124, 315, 335, 343
Grain #125, 315, 326–27, 328–33, 337, 342, 347
Grain #126, 315, 335, 343, 344, 346, 361
Grain #126A, 346–54, 361
isotopes in, 214, 224, 224, 220–26, 316, 322, 341–43
naming of, 317
quasicrystals discovered in, 221–28, 315, 318, 344–46, 355–56, 356, 357–59
Khatyrka River, 261, 264
Khatyrka samples, author’s fear of loss of, 336, 343
khatyrkite, 131, 132–35, 137–40, 142–47, 151, 156, 158, 160, 326
#4061, 132, 178–79, 182, 225
museum holotype of, 163–65, 167–76, 190, 199–200, 206–9, 226, 243–44, 245, 285
Razin et al. paper announcing discovery of, 164–65, 164, 203
see also Florence sample
Kikuchi, Seishi, 142
Kikuchi pattern, 142–43, 143
kites and darts, 42, 43
Koekkoek, Debora, 191–93, 197–98
Koekkoek, Nico, 160–61, 178, 191–93, 197, 198–99, 200, 202
Komelkov, Viktor, 1, 247–48, 251, 255–57, 260, 263–64, 276–77, 291, 293, 296, 300
Komelkova, Olya, 247, 248, 249, 254, 257, 261, 262, 267–68, 274, 291, 300
Koryak mountain range, 168, 256, 258, 259, 265, 292, 293, 295, 296