Primitive Technology

by David Wescott

  *Excerpt from APE 4, Edited By Errett Callahan. Bone Technology In The Pamunkey Project: Phase II, By Norman Jefferson

  The locations utilized for line fishing were usually from some vantage point along the shore. We were under constant demands from our diametrically opposed and assumed life-styles of scientist and pre-contact Indians. We had no time to sit upon the bank and play the fish lines. Therefore, the baited trot line and throw lines were left out at various strategic points. The lines were checked and baited three times a day...A variety of baits were tried; mussels, ground-hog organs, rotten fish flesh, minnows, and corn. Even though no fish were landed, the baits were always missing and some breakage did result.

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  1 Excerpt from APE 4, Edited By Errett Callahan. Bone Technology In The Pamunkey Project: Phase II, By Norman Jefferson

  FROM THE LEG OF THE DEER

  Text and Illustrations By Roy H. Brown

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  During the summer of 1988 while working as a volunteer at an archeological excavation in Western Maryland, I uncovered an artifact that caught my imagination and hasn't let go. From the scattered debris of a Late Woodland midden emerged a portion of a split leg bone of a deer. The 3" long object had one end broken and the other ground to a beveled edge, polished smooth from use. I had found my first bone tool, the working end of a hide flesher. On returning home, I procured bones from a nearby roadkill and made a replica of my find.

  Since that day I have examined numerous bone artifacts; awls, needles, beads, fishhooks, chisels, beamers and projectile points. The photograph shows a collection of tools which I have replicated from deer bone, a most versatile raw material. I recently mortised a hole in an elm celt using two green long bones. Breaking the upper end of the bone, I then ground a beveled edge on it with a sandstone slab. Blows from a heavy wooden mallet against the expedient chisels, cut a 1.5" wide x 2" high x 2" deep slot through the seasoned wood within an hour. The first chisel shattered during the process, thus requiring the second.The broken pieces were set aside for future tools.

  I believe that the lower leg of the White-tailed Deer is one of the least appreciated and under-utilized parts of this fine animal. At the close of hunting season you can find deer limbs discarded the backroads throughout Appalachia. The ancient hunters of these hills were not so wasteful as we.

  Bone tools replicated by the author: from the top - hide-working beamer, flesher/chisel,awls, needles, projectile point from bone sliver and one from hoof bone, bead from a foot bone used as a draw-string keeper, fish gorge, fishhook and bone-handled chert knife.

  NOTES ON MAT NEEDLES AND CATTAIL MATS

  By Chris Morasky

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  Some mat needles were made of wood, others of bone, cane, and a variety of other materials. Some were triangular in cross-section, and others flat or convexed. They ranged in length from a few inches to 3 feet long. Apparently, rib bone needles were more common in the east and the long, triangular needles were more common in the Pacific northwest. Some mats were creased on either side of the cordage to prevent the cattails from further splitting.

  Cordage was common basswood bast where available, sometimes nettle. Quickie mats can be made with cattail or tule cordage used to twine the mat together.

  Eastern mats were made approximately 12' long, but length varied, and 2-4 layers kept out all rain and wind. Mat lodges were often winter houses. One of the neat aspects of a mat lodge is its ease of relocation. The mats are simply rolled up, carried to the next site, a new framework made, and mats relaid. A one family, 12' diameter lodge can be built (including poles and tied into framework) in as little as 4 hours.

  The top edge of a shelter mat was either twined or tied with half hitches as shown below. The bottom edge may be left unfinished.

  A. Chris Morasky in front of Jim Riggs' mat lodge with a small rib-bone used for the needle.

  B. Cutting the rib to length with a flint chip.

  C. Abrading the tip and edges of the bone on a sandstone slab.

  D. Cutting into the pithy center. This was done at each end and

  along the sides where the soft inner tissue was exposed by grinding.

  E. The bone split in half.

  F. Drilling a hole into the needle with a flint-tipped hand drill.

  G. The finished mat needle ready for use.

  MAKING A REDUCED ANTLER FLAKER

  Text and Photos By Steven Edholm, © 1995

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  A few years ago I decided to wean myself from copper pressure flakers, figuring that I was cheating myself out of part of the stone tool making experience by not being in touch with real stone age processes. Using the various antler tines that I had lying around proved very disappointing and probably contributed to my not putting down the copper sooner. The curve in an antler tine doesn't allow for as controlled and accurate pressure to be applied to the work as in a straight tool, and the usually large diameter of the tine requires long and laborious grinding to resharpen, only to end up blunt again in short order. Also a short tool which doesn't reach past the palm lacks the leverage of a longer tool and doesn't always allow for the consistent removal of large even pressure flakes.

  I knew that friend and knapper Jim Riggs used a slab of antler bound to a handle and in one of my favorite primitive technology references, Indian and Eskimo Artifacts of North America by Charles Miles, there is a picture of two of these tools.

  The advantages seemed obvious so I made one and thus began my love affair with what I prefer to call the reduced or split antler flaker, that is, a section of antler which has been reduced to a smaller thickness and or width, straightened and bound to a wooden handle.

  Then again, why not just use copper for pressure flaking tools? It's cheap, it doesn't require frequent sharpening, the tools are easy to assemble and it just seems to work a little better than antler. On top of all that, many people say copper was used prehistorically for flintknapping.

  Prehistoric people in later stone working horizons may have used copper for pressure flaking, but they were certainly in the global minority. The vast majority of flintknapping through the eons has been done without the benefit of metal tools.

  Sometimes I use copper while at other times I use antler and bone. It depends on what and why I am flintknapping. If my only reasons for flintknapping were to produce as aesthetic a piece as possible in a minimum amount of time, I guess I would use slab sawn stone, a diamond grinder and all copper tools. But I don't do primitive technology just because the stuff looks neat, I'm after an experience and a continuum. I want a glimpse into the past. I love to think about the multitudes of ancient flintknappers who have experienced the same problems and victories that I experience... like the buckskin thong that binds my flaker to the handle slipping off and unwinding or getting abraded when I sharpen the tool. My solution to some of these problems is sure to be the same as some of theirs, giving me further insight into the lives of stone age artisans.

  Reduced antler flakers with and without handles, and a notching tool. Good antler tools like these can improve metal free stone work.

  Besides, there's nothing like the feeling of making something start to finish without the assistance of things made by other people or more especially by technology that we don't understand or can't duplicate. I think that most all flintknappers can benefit, in some way, from making and using a good antler tool and you may be surprised at just how well they perform.

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  Unlike bone and wood that is best worked “green” (fresh) with stone tools, antler can be soaked and then grooved with stone flake tools to acquire the desired shape. Soaking antler allows the harder outside to be abraded more easily, and softens the pithy inner core. The outer layer can be worked while attached to the inner core (for horn bow limbs) or can be lifted out for items such as arrow points. The Editor

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  A fine burinated groove by
Scott Vandenberg.

  MATERIALS

  I prefer whitetail antler over mule deer. It seems to be consistently more dense and less pithy. Moose always seems dense and would probably be a good choice, I haven't tried it. Elk often seems soft to me and the one time I used elk it was too soft and performed poorly.

  The longer you can make your flaker the better. A long tool is less likely to move around and work loose when bound to a handle, and of course a long tool will last longer.

  Antlers, as you’ve surely noticed, rarely possess straight lines, therefore most reduced antler flakers will need to be straightened. There are two basic types of bends which may need to be removed. Imagine a long narrow slab of antler bent like a strung bow. This type of bend is easy to remove. Now imagine the same piece of antler bent like a boomerang. The removal of boomerang type bends is much more questionable.

  If you make a light duty small diameter flaker (for removing small flakes) shaped more like a rod, either type of bend should come out pretty easily. However, I think a slabiform flaker about 1/4" X 1/2" to 5/8" is very useful for working on larger pieces and in this type of stout flaker the boomerang type of bend will most likely not yield due to the extra mass.

  Matt Richards graving an antler with a burin.

  So, look for a dense piece of antler from which a nice long bow curve shaped slab about 1/2" wide can be removed. A good thing to start with is a long deer antler tine (at least 5"). It will yield two flaker blanks when split in half. One or both of the resulting blanks could also be split again to yield small rod shaped flakers. (see photo #1 left side)

  Antler is much easier to work when softened by soaking. Submerge it in water for 3 or 4 days in advance. Also remember that antler, even old antler, contains proteins which will begin to rot when wetted. I got a nasty infection once from a cut I inflicted on myself while working antler. The longer the antler soaks the more septic it will become. Changing the water helps and you need only soak it long enough to wet the material entirely through. Clean your hands as well as your situation permits after working with funky animal matter of any kind.

  Making a burin. The burin is made from a flake with two blows of the hammerstone or baton. It can be resharpened if needed by removing further spalls in either direction

  TOOLS

  I use stone flake and core tools, sand and a sandstone slab to work bone and antler. The tool that finds the most use is the burin or graver, a very ancient type of modified flake tool which works particularly well on these materials. When making a burin select a flake or blade (better tough chert or flint than obsidian) which is neither too thick in the center nor too thin on the edges. A burin has a strong blocky chisel type edge and a good one can move through soaked antler pretty quickly.

  WORKING THE ANTLER

  If the antler needs to be reduced into sections, as in removing a tine, use a sharp edge on a core of chert to chop the soaked antler or a biface to saw it. When you've chopped or sawn part way through, bend it, step on it, or hit it with a rock to finish the job.

  Pick a point on the burin or another flake and carefully scribe lines in the antler where you want to cut it. Apply more pressure as these grooves deepen. Try using your burin at different angles. It should be removing long curly shavings not just mealy dust. Push it or pull it, whatever works best.

  As the groove deepens the burin will bind up and stop cutting. This problem is minimized by using a burin in the first place instead of a sharp flake which would bind up even more quickly. Widen the groove as needed so that you can cut all the way to the pith of the antler. (The pith is the spongy looking core of the antler.) Avoid, however, making the groove excessively wide or you may find, in the end, that you have removed too much material.

  You'll find that the antler dries out remarkably fast, even as you work. Keep it wet and your work will proceed quickly. If you take a break leave it soaking.

  The ends of the grooves usually end up too shallow. I use a flake with small teeth chipped into it to saw through the ends. Once the pith is reached, this tool can also be used to finish cutting through the bottom of the groove and deeper into the pith.

  Once you've reached the pith you have to split the tool blank off of the antler, or if you've chosen a single tine split the tine in half. If you use strictly stone age tools this can be a very frustrating job. A nice piece of metal would do the job expediently. I pound, lever, wedge, saw, pull and twist to separate the blank. A tool that has proved very useful for this job is one which I made for notching points. It is an antler tine the end of which has been abraded into a flat spatula shape (see photo). I pound it into the groove to break through the pith and also use it to pry the blank off. Sometimes it breaks but antler is the only natural material I am familiar with which can undergo that kind of great bending stress. By the way, that tool also does make a good notcher. You may want to make one while you have soaked antler on hand.

  My favorite flaker handle and a flaker that fits it well. These handles are easily made with stone tools if green wood is used. A shallow notch near the tip of the handle will prevent the thong from slipping off the end during use.

  Bone and antler tools made with stone tool processes. Elk antler projectile point Hupa/Yurok (N/W California) style, elk rib shaft straightener, scraper/shaft straightener of antler, deer bone harpoon, and bone awls and needles.

  Now you should have a blank with rough edges and burrs and chunks of pith. This needs to be further reduced to shape and thinned enough to bend easily. Use a gritty sand stone slab with plenty of loose, coarse sand and water on it for grinding to shape, as well as stone flakes with edge angles of 55 to 90 degrees for scraping and shaving.

  Unless your blank has no bends, which is very unlikely, it will need some straightening. This is usually as simple as binding it to the handle or a straight stick while wet. However, some may have drastic enough bends or sufficient mass to warrant boiling or steaming to loosen things up. Don't boil or steam the antler for too long, just enough to heat it through and through. If I were in the field or even if I could just have a back yard without feeling like the neighbors would call the fire department on me, I would wrap the blank in six layers of green leaves and steam it in hot ashes.

  While thoroughly hot from steaming or boiling, bend the tool straight as you tie it to the handle or a straight stick. Use a strip of buckskin or leather for the wrap. Allow the blank to dry and set this way for a few days. After a brief sharpening on sandstone the tool will be ready to use.

  Lessons learned making the reduced antler flaker can be applied to a wide variety of bone and antler projects. Remember to use very fresh bone and soaked antler and be creative with tools and processes.

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  Antler billets with a thought for the pocket-book.

  Text and Illustration By Charles Spear

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  It was after buying a moose billet for a hefty outlay of cash that I liked my copper-capped billets even more. However, when you knap for the public the same question is asked, "Did the Indians have copper tools like that?" My answer is the same each time,"No, they had plenty of deer and moose but they would have given their eye teeth for copper." With that introduction I solved the problem somewhat at least to my satisfaction by taking the antler tines from white tail deer which I pick up at 'rendezvous' for a couple bucks. I then take the handles from the hardware store for scissor-style bush trimmers to make antler billets. The pointed part of the tine is filed to a cylindrical shape which will fit into the handle socket. This end is epoxied in place with PC-7 a two mix 'grey' epoxy. When it is set overnight the other end is filed to a dome shape (the very best billets are made with the rosette of the antler as the rounded end) and it is ready to use. Replacements are easily made by drilling out the spent 'tine billet' and regluing a new one.

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  Selecting Bone-Working Materials

  By David Wescott

  The hunter-gatherer of old had materials availa
ble in tremendous quantity. Whether they hunted and killed an animal or simply made use of “found”sources, it was always there. Be on the lookout for whatever sources you can find, butchers, farmers, legal roadkill, etc. Think beyond mammal bones to include bird and fish as well.

  Bone works much like wood - when it is fresh it can be scored, split and shaped easily, but does not finish as well until it is dry. Dry bone allows you to sharpen and shape it to extremely efficient points.

  Fresh bone is by far the strongest to use. Tools made from fresh bone are less brittle than dry bone. In the animal it is strong, flexible and performs specific tasks....remember this when selecting the best bone for a tool. Fresh (green) bone is very waxy and works a lot like antler. Fresh bone can be rough-shaped, seasoned, finished (fine sharpening), and oiled to produce very durable tools.

  Baking drys the bone out too much, and although boiling is less destructive, it does affect the bone. Soaking dried bone makes it easier to work in some ways. It improves the workability by making the bone more elastic and softens the surface to improve the bite of the tool.

  Found bone needs to be selected and graded to be sure that it is not too dry, brittle, powdery or water logged.